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Introduction

Successful marketing requires recognition and authority at the top decision-making level. Marketing programs must be carefully planned and based not merely on knowledge of internal corporate affairs, but also on knowledge of external environments. A homeostatic point of equilibrium between customer wants and needs, is called for on the one hand, and corporate goals and resources on the other. Business organizations are more likely to make fundamental and continuous corporate adjustments to the demands of shifting market environments. To date, relatively few have truly adopted a market orientation, despite the lip service that has been paid to marketing as an orientation in business.

Such factors as continued economic growth, increased disposable income, vigorous domestic and foreign competition, accelerating technology, automation, population decentralization, expansion, and innovation will spur the appearance of this new marketing form. Marketing is concerned with setting goals, establishing policies and programs, and implementing business action for the entire firm (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Its major tasks are to translate consumer wants and needs, actual and potential, into profitable products and services that the company is capable of producing; to cultivate markets to support these products; and to program the distribution activities necessary to reach the markets. Marketing is not merely a limited specialized activity of the business, but rather a perspective for the total management team. It does not function as a separate entity in the business, nor is it more important than any other primary activity, such as manufacturing or finance, yet through actual and potential sales it does establish constraints within which the other activities must be performed. The managerial approach to marketing stresses the problem-solving and decision-making responsibility of marketing managers.

Strategic Planning

Planning begins with the assumption that the institution is a uniform, intractable structure directed in minutiae by control. Although very much authoritarian, the personal nature of real authority gives way to impersonal policies and procedures (Drejer, 2002). Planning becomes not a set of specific plans to be realized but a continuing desperate attempt to write enough regulations to control every aspect of the organization, to be enforced by the guardians of the establishment. And the control is strictly top-down, issuing in mandates without commensurate resources or authority; there is no bottom up, except the accountability for carrying out dictates.

The problem is that results cannot be mandated. Planning not only takes on the characteristics of the institution, it reinforces them. Rather than changing the system, planning is adapted to the defense of the system. Following Dobson and Starkey (2004) Governing the choice between strategic options should be the notion of competitive advantage. The firm has to identify unique opportunities for itself in its chosen area (p. 9).

Customer and consumer wants and needs are central to the marketing concept. Strategic planning must use research findings and concepts that will help in determining actual and potential wants and needs as a basis for guiding decisions. Strategy is the process of deciding how to best position the organization in its competitive environment in order to achieve and sustain competitive advantage, profitably. Strategy is formed at both corporate level (what industries/markets should we operate in) and business unit level (in what segments should we compete and how) (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Different Types of Strategies

Different types of strategies allow companies to select the best approach to marketing and management. If the planning process has been faithfully followed, the strategies are obvious. They have been gradually realized by the intense and open discussions of all the other components of the plan (Drejer, 2002). Some may come directly from the internal and external analyses, but most will arise out of the critical issues.

There are, however, two technicalities that will have to be reinforced repeatedly: that is, strategies are not programmatic or operational initiatives. They are strategic, involving every aspect of the organization and establishing a context for everything within the organization. Second, they are neither categorized under the specific objectives nor arranged in any kind of priority. The main marketing strategies which help companies to achieve competitive advantage are cost leadership, differentiation and focusing strategy (Moore, 2001).

Cost leadership

Cost leaders must maintain an acceptable level of satisfaction of buyer needs. Cost leadership is often in conflict with differentiation i.e. to achieve differentiation adds cost thereby removing the potential cost leadership advantage. Low cost is where the business manages its cost base to ensure that it is the lowest cost producer thereby either winning a greater volume of business through lower prices than competitors can sustain and continue to be profitable, or charging comparable prices and therefore achieving a higher level of profitability. The cost leadership strategy often requires a lean culture and is usually perceived as unattractive with the consistent focus on cost management and efficiency. A tendency to be production or operations led therefore emerges.

This produces a concentration on standardization of products, components and processes with the minimization of variation (Drejer, 2002). A fine balance needs to be achieved between maintaining a narrow range of products/services and meeting the varying needs of different customer groups. It is these tensions between either providing a differentiated approach to match customer need and gain competitive advantage, or pursuing cost leadership to gain profit margin and value advantage, that often leads in practice to a mixed approach. This means that the advantages of neither competitive position are achieved. This being stuck in the middle yields no competitive advantage and erodes the position of the business unit (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Differentiation

Differentiators must maintain a broadly equivalent cost base to that of competitors to achieve above-average profitability. Differentiators must select cost effective forms of differentiation, which cannot be easily or immediately replicated or leapfrogged by competitors (Moore, 2001). The differentiation strategy is often the most attractive in that it provides the opportunity for a more creative approach to the market. Industry wide is where the business operates across the breadth of the industry providing products/services for a wide range of customer needs. An example in the car industry would be Vauxhall with an extensive range across a broad base of customers.

For this reason the organization tends to be marketing led. It is vital in these business units that the cost/benefit analysis of any new form of differentiation is thoroughly evaluated. In addition, sensitivity analysis must be used to look at the viability of the associated cost base at different levels of sales performance and in different market conditions. The primary challenge with differentiation is one of competitor replication, where the advantage is temporary and, once replicated, becomes an increase in the industry/market cost base for all competitors. This upward migration of the cost base can over time destroy an attractive market segment (Drejer, 2002).

Differentiation and price are linked. Normally achieving differentiation enables a price premium to be charged. However, this additional price potential may be sacrificed to enable increased volume/market share to be achieved. This in itself may provide a further competitive advantage as high volume drives down unit costs. Price is also a factor which itself influences customer perception.

In certain markets/segments high price is seen as overcharging or the customer naturally leading to lower price competitive offerings being chosen. However, in other markets/segments price is in itself a positive differentiator. In this case premium price reinforces the perception of premium product in fact a lower price would damage the competitive positioning (Moore, 2001). Examples would be luxury cars or exclusive hotels where the tangible additional value provided, versus a lower profile competitor, is significantly less than the price premium attracted. The price reinforces the positive perception. Here brand image and exclusivity are directly supported by price. To reduce price would actually reduce attractiveness (Drejer, 2002).

Focusing strategy

Some companies choose to focus on a particular segment only. Particular segment has chosen to concentrate attention on a defined segment of the market. This is called a focus strategy. An example would be BMW pursuing the luxury car segment. Uniqueness is where the business provides a distinct basis of differentiation (uniqueness perceived by the customer and regarded as valuable) which enables business to be won and normally a price premium attracted.

The model enables us to consider the requirements of each strategy and therefore to identify action themes. For many more complex organizations operating in sophisticated markets an industry-wide approach locks the business into the mindset of differentiation or cost leadership. This may lead to inappropriate approaches being taken to certain segments of the market. Directors and managers will usually focus on sales (volume and value) and profit performance.

Future plans are often based on what has been achieved in the past with an emphasis on growth and, for larger businesses, increased market share. The impact on the business of a divergence from plan is not fully considered or even perhaps recognized. The assumptions made in any plan will never be perfect and changes may occur in many areas. Directors and managers need to understand the financial characteristics of the business how it will respond to change. To identify these financial characteristics we need to ensure that we have the right information to enable judgments to be made (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Internal and external Environment of A Corporation in the Planning Process

The environmental scan sets the stage for a successful strategic planning conference and is the most important activity. The scan is usually prepared by anyone in the organization who is in a position to see the relationship of the organization to its environment. In large organizations, the strategic-planning staff complete the scan. In medium-sized organizations, the comptroller can prepare the scan, while in a small organization, anyone who has a good understanding of the organizations environment can perform the scan (Moore, 2001). The environmental scan identifies and analyzes the key societal and demographic trends, forces, and phenomena.

All have, or may have, an impact on the formulation and execution of organization strategies. The environmental scan may also include a situation audit, which is an analysis of trends, past, present, and future, and provides valuable statistical and financial information for the development of the strategic plan (Drejer, 2002).

SWOT

SWOT is a widely used thinking framework for identifying Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. It enables key factors to be visibly recorded as a high level summary of a business (or personal) situation. It is a summary that is simple but powerful. The technique is commonly used by consultants to document the key factors arising from the review of a particular project or business. The use of SWOT enables an assessment to be made of the overall internal state of a business and the direction in which it is heading, through looking at its Strengths and Weaknesses. It also enables a judgment to be made about aspects of the external business environment, which can affect the performance of the business, through looking at the Opportunities and Threats it faces in the wider world (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Strengths are defined as those internal qualities, assets, or conditions that contribute to the organizations ability to achieve its mission-those things that can be capitalized on, that reflect the best of the system. For that reason, not only should those strengths that directly relate to the existing mission be considered here but also any other particular attribute that the organization has accrued.

That is to say, emphasis should not be on strengths that are comparable to other like organizations but primarily those strengths belonging only to the planning organization (Moore, 2001). A recognition of strengths is important in planning because it signals to the organization the areas in which success may be most easily compounded. Real strengths represent achievement and, therefore, are testimony to the organizations ability to perform, as well as its potential for even greater achievement. In fact, excellence is nothing more than strength pursued to its ultimate (Drejer, 2002).

The weaknesses of a marketing organization are those internal characteristics, conditions, or circumstances that are impeding or even preventing the realization of the current mission. They are, obviously, not the opposite of strengths, although the same item may appear on both lists. Whereas strengths represent achievement, weaknesses usually indicate either a lack of performance or the inability to perform.

However, weaknesses are quite often simply the result of benign neglect. Therefore, they are not necessarily a reflection of the current capacity or intent of the organization but either its present priorities or capability. There are two provisos in the development of weaknesses. First, if an issue or a concern is not identified here as a weakness, then it should never be raised again. This should be taken as an opportunity to leave the past behind. Second, weaknesses should not be cast in the form of solutions; any suggestion that begins with lack of is a solution and is unacceptably premature. Contrary to a popular romantic notion, there is no advantage in weakness; the only possible benefit is sympathy. All must be either solved or removed (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Opportunities are those issues of time and circumstance that are uniquely those of the organization because of what it is, where it is, and when it is, and there is always just one best opportunity for truly recreating an organization. Opportunities refer to market growth potential and market development, positive and progressive changes in economic environment and demand (Drejer, 2002).

Critical issues are the juncture between the planning process and the planning discipline provide a compelling rationale for the strategic deployment of resources. Threats are negative and inevitable; in the extreme, they disable or destroy. Threats refer to external factors which have a negative impact on the marketing organization, its market share and competitive position (Drejer, 2002).

Porters 5 Forces

This is a model that enables the competitive environment in which the organization operates to be analyzed. It was developed by Michael Porter and is often referred to as the Porter 5 Forces model. It helps to identify the strength of the competitive forces that impact on the industry. Whereas the previous stage Environmental Mapping examined more generally the wider commercial context affecting all industries, this approach is focused on the specific industry in which the organization operates. The model identifies five industry forces that directly influence an organization (Moore, 2001).

Competition among existing firms this is the natural competitive rivalry which exists between the various businesses operating within the industry marketplace. Threat of new entrants this is the potential likelihood of, and ease of, entry for new firms into the market.

An example would be the entry of Japanese contractors into the UK construction market. Threat of substitute products or services this is where a product or service, perhaps produced through a different technology, enters the market.

An example would be the entry of compact discs into the audiotape/record market providing the same product, music, through a different technology. Bargaining power of suppliers this examines the relationship between businesses in the industry and the suppliers to those businesses. Where suppliers have a unique or restricted availability product they can exert a strong influence over prices and conditions of supply, therefore potentially putting pressures on the businesses purchasing their product/services. Bargaining power of buyers this examines the relationship between businesses in the industry and the customers of those businesses. The purpose is to identify the relative strength of the business in the customer relationship (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

The objective is to consider the industry marketplace and to identify the ability of each force to de-stabilize the existing situation. The power of the influence on the business of each force can then be ranked. This enables appropriate actions to be considered to take advantage of, or defend, the situation to be reflected in the strategy and plans of the organization (see Appendix 1). The structure of the industry will significantly effect the profit potential of the business operating in that industry. The strategy and actions of a business operating in the industry may improve or destroy the industry structure. Each business (and the relevant decision takers) must recognize and evaluate the impact, short term and long term, of actions taken on the overall industry structure and attractiveness (Drejer, 2002).

Marketing 4 Ps

Marketing mix consists of four elements: product, price, promotion and place, Product involves the adjustment of productive capacity and technology to consumer demand. Technically, it encompasses both product planning and product development, which in reality are synonymous. In consequence, we shall rely on the term product development in its broadest sense. Product development is concerned with offering the right goods at the right time, at the right price, in the right quantities, in the right place. Referring to the process of evolving new products, it is closely associated with market development.

It focuses on the future product line, on products that should be added or deleted, on the impact of products on price, promotion, warranty, and service, and on the development of criteria to evaluate product performance. By assessing new or modified products that can be added by acquisition and internal development, product development becomes the life blood of a business. Decisions in this area determine the products to be produced and stocked, as well as details concerning their appearance, form, size, package, quantities, timing of production, price lines, and anticipated market segments.

Product development combines the scientists function of analyzing, classifying, and organizing information into commercially feasible new products, and the marketers function of assessing unsatisfied wants and needs and identifying profitable market opportunities (Moore, 2001). Effective product development adopts a critical but positive posture. Management cannot be satisfied with current products, regardless of how good they are. Such an attitude and expression of expectations achieve an even better match of corporate offerings with consumer expectations (Drejer, 2002) (see Appendix 2).

Place means that a product is available at a right time at the right place. International marketing deals with geographically diverse locations so it relies on effective technology and distribution facilities. The idea is to establish effective management in multi-brand companies by developing a series of profit centers in which product executives assume responsibility for the total marketing effort for a line. This approach grows out of the inability of one executive to master the intricacies and details of marketing several dozens or hundreds of products. The large drug and soap companies pioneered the concept, and Procter and Gamble is one of the most successful in utilizing it (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Pricing strategies influence customers choice and position the company and product on the market. Although held responsible for profits, these managers generally cannot control costs of production or prices. Nor can they direct salesmen and advertising, or such supporting services as marketing research, package design, and product engineering. Authority for such activities is vested in others. Because of all these constraints, they are usually perched in a precarious position (Moore, 2001).

Promotions help companies to inform customers about new products and benefits, new discounts and product features. Promotions are a rational way of translating experience, research information, and thought into marketing action. It is a pragmatic, organized procedure for analyzing situations and meeting the future. Based on information about ends and means to determine various causal relationships, trends, and patterns of behavior, it is concerned with the selection of alternative strategies. In essence, purposeful research, experience, judgment, and decision making (all of which are directed toward guiding the corporate system and bringing it growth, survival, and adjustment) form the fabric of the marketing planning process. Marketing planning is an integrated, intelligent, rational process for guiding business change (Drejer, 2002).

How to Choose the Best Strategy

In order to choose the best strategy, the company should analyze its business environment and create clear vision, mission and objectives for further growth. Goal setting in an organizational sense is based on concepts of management planning and strategy. It includes:

assessing the environment;
creating a vision (defining the organizations purpose, philosophy, mission, and goals);
formulating strategy by setting measurable objectives, including the plans or tactics to attain those objectives;
executing the strategy;
controlling and evaluating the entire process (Thompson and Martin, 2005).

There are two technical devices that greatly serve to expedite the planning process: stipulations and cross-references. The first should be employed to clarify any aspect of a particular plan that was explained by the action team leaders oral presentation but is not evident in the steps of the plan. Or, stipulations may be used by the planning team to limit or expand an action as long as the stipulations, always written directly on the plan, do not change the plan.

The planning team in this way can avoid sending a plan back to the action team. Cross-referencing is purely an administrative necessity. If it is not done during the acceptance of the plans, it will have to be accomplished later by the internal facilitator or those responsible for assigning the plans. It is simply a notation that two or more plans must be undertaken together, which raises a small but critical point (Drejer, 2002).

Many times, (almost) duplicate plans or plans that depend on each other will be presented under different strategies. They should not be combined, nor should they be eliminated. Both will be needed, in place, at the next update of the plan. So a brief note should be added to each, indicating the companion plan(s).Immediately after the session, the facilitator will debrief each action team leader individually, explain the planning teams decisions and requests, and establish a date for any re-submissions (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

At that time (usually one day), only the revisions of the action plans are considered. The only option the planning team does not have is returning the plans. The plans are either accepted or rejected. In addition to reviewing and selecting action plans to support the strategies, the planning team usually finds this an appropriate time to review again every component of the plan, just to confirm its own satisfaction with the content and coherence of the total plan. The final task of the planning team is to develop a recommended schedule of implementation for the strategies and plans, including a year-by-year cost projection (Thompson and Martin, 2005). The best strategy should be based on the specific goal that it supports.

The best strategy should be analyzed in terms of long-term and short-term growth of the company and possible risks. If a strategy does not support one of the goals, it will be rejected. Worthwhile objectives meet certain criteria and are achievable (Thompson and Martin, 2005). These conditions may be more stringent than they sound. Many times, too much is taken on in strategic-planning conferences, resulting in unrealistic expectations.

It is relatively easy to establish objectives at a strategic-planning conference, but when top management returns to the office, the real issues return to capture the executives time. Strategies should also be measurable in terms of quality, quantity, time, and cost. Ratios, percentages, rates, or incremental steps should be used to assess progress. While every attempt should be made to make objectives measurable, measurement is not absolutely essential. If the objectives are subjective or intangible, the successful accomplishment of the objective should be characterized or described. If a strategy cannot be measured or its successful accomplishment cannot be described, it is not a worthwhile objective (Drejer, 2002).

Strategy implementation

Typically, the implementation schedule with resource projections is a simple chart listing each plan, under each strategy, with a recommended beginning date (see Exhibit 28).It is very important that this schedule not be interpreted as assigning priorities to the plans. An organization must do all it can to realize the goals it has set for itself. It is one thing to have a vision with clear goals, objectives, and plans, but if they are to be of value, they must also be successfully executed. If strategic planning is the shadow and the spirit of successful organizations, than implementation is their flesh and blood. Much has been written about the importance of strategic planning, but planning by itself changes nothing (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

The main stages of strategy implementation are action planning, organizational structure, human resource change, monitoring and control. Strategic management calls for a commitment to the vision of the organization. It is at this juncture that strategic plans tend to fail because chief executive officers tend to other more pressing matters. While there exists a strategic plan and the document accurately represents the vision of the organization, until top management gives the plan ongoing priority attention, it is just a document. The success of the planning process hinges on top managements emphasis on following up and monitoring the plan.

The key to any successful execution is commitment. An organization needs to remain flexible to basic shifts in the environment, and it also needs flexibility to be responsive to everyday problems and opportunities. Pliable organizations capture opportunities when and where they occur. Flexibility can be inherent at the objective-setting level of the strategic plan. Allowing objectives to be changed by people at the working level creates empowered employees (Thompson and Martin, 2005). Empowered people will visualize opportunities and act to achieve results, and they form the heart of an innovative, responsive, and flexible strategic plan.

Tactics to accomplish objectives are also subject to change. The further down in the process one goes, the more valuable flexibility becomes in facilitating execution. The execution of the plan must not be stifled by bureaucratic rules and procedures. Reaching toward the goal and achieving results is what strategic planning is all about. With commitment to the strategic plan and with individual offices developing the tactics to execute it, a responsive feedback and evaluation system must now be drawn up (Drejer, 2002).

At the last stage, feedback ensures that the organization achieves what it set out to accomplish. If strategic management is a top management function and implementation a midlevel function, then feedback and evaluation belong to everyone. Feedback and evaluation are related to the whole idea of information management. Although the details of information management will be discussed later, it is important to set the general tenor of that discussion (Dobson and Starkey, 2004).

Research & Development- In Business

For a new business initiative it is essential to recognize the development stages through which the enterprise is likely to pass, and prepare for the issues and challenges which will be faced. For a business unit within a corporate it is important to recognize that the same development process applies often with the same challenges! However, these challenges are sometimes eased by the protection of an established corporate parent able to soften the impact of negative cash flow and poor profitability at the relevant stages. Creativity becomes the responsibility of R&D, which is staffed by specialists in visualizing and realizing marginal or major product changes.

Ever since companies such as Dupont and Bell Labs first took, and successfully traveled along, this road, setting up a separate R&D group has been a popular way to enhance value at the concept stage. There are many ways of distinguishing innovations. These are based on degree of importance, breadth of application, and impact. The introduction of absolutely new products, variations of products, extension of new services, new packages, new advertising campaigns, and different pricing arrangements are all innovations. A continuum of innovation exists, ranging from very slight modification to radically new, important developments that give rise to new industries (Drejer, 2002).

Viewed from the consumers perspective, three types of product innovations may be delineated: fundamental, functional, and adaptive. Fundamental innovations create totally new products that have much greater impact than adaptive innovations. Where totally new products are developed, new industries are created. As a result, fundamental innovation may create a monopoly position within an industry for a period of time. For such new products, the creation of primary demand is more important than for products that are adaptations. Examples of fundamental innovations are television, airplanes, air conditioners, and dehumidifiers (Thompson and Martin, 2005).

Relationship between Marketing and R&D

Given the diversity of external demands (competitors actions, governmental regulations, and technological advances, in addition to pressing customer requirements) depending upon a single group, such as the self-contained R&D, could prove to be inadequate and dangerously myopic. The team could also be informally constituted where the channels for networking are indicated but no further. To assure profitable growth, companies must add new products that are tied to different phases of market development. When some products are declining, others should be enjoying market growth. Sometimes this is achieved by a merger; sometimes it is done internally (Thompson and Martin, 2005).

Regardless, the combination of the total product line as it relates to m

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