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Heros Discussion Hello Class!
Let us examine Heros and how they function in our lives.
After viewing the video, ‘What makes a hero,’ do all of the religious episodes mentioned follow the pattern of the hero’s journey? Find a comparable story from last week. Does it follow the hero’s journey pattern?
Is the hero’s journey formula so flexible that it can be applied to any story with a main character and a beginning-middle-end story arc? Try to identify a successful book or movie that defies the hero’s journey pattern. Consider how that story could be modified to conform to the hero’s journey.
What do ordinary people have in common with heroes? Why do you believe people look to heroes? Especially those like Sir Gawain, Maui, and Mwindo?
Do you think that the Iliad follows Joseph Campbell’s heroic monomyth theory? Why or why not?
READING:
HEROES
Since the days when humans believed that deities might actually “come down” to interact with us in the world, we have tended to leave gods to the theologians and philosophers and to find sources for awe and wonder in heroes, those special fellow humans infused to varying degrees with divine or superhuman qualities. There have always been both religious and secular heroes. Some, to be sure, have been incarnated deities, some have been humans with at least one divine parent, some have derived their power simply from their allegiance to divine purpose, and some have performed seemingly impossible deeds in the name of entities that have nothing to do with religions. Heroes have been fictional and historical. Our heroes reflect our priorities. Usually, males in patriarchal cultures, are often the offspring of the union of deities and mortals. To varying degrees, they possess superhuman qualities, but they are also genuinely human like us. Achilles, Herakles, Odysseus, Cuchulainn, Sigurd, Moses, Beowulf, Waterpot Boy, and Arjuna are all heroes whose powers come from some connection with divinity but who suffer the agonies and joys of human life.
Heroes are our personae in the world of myth, expressions of our collective psyches first as cultures and then as a species. Cuchulainn reflects the Irish physical and psychological experience, and Achilles could not be anything else but archaic Greek. But when we compare the heroes of these various cultures, Joseph Campbell’s heroic monomyth pattern emerges and we discover a hero who belongs to the Indo-European tradition, to Europe, and ultimately to all of humanity.
HEROINES
It would be of interest to know more about the deeds of heroic figures associated with goddess mythologies predating recorded history if such mythologies ever existed. It is possible, for instance, that the popular motif in fairy tales of the prince’s marriage to the enchanted princess, following the many trials and tests, suggests something of an older, pre-femme fatale pattern in which the princess Joseph Campbell calls her the “Goddess- Queen” (1949)-represented life itself. In that case, the hero’s marriage to her would have signified ultimate knowledge of life. Feminine elements remain a powerful force in the matrilineal cultures of the Native North American Southwest. In the kinaalda, the puberty ritual of Navajo and Apache girls, the initiate becomes the creating goddess, Changing Woman, herself, and attains curative powers for a time. In the Candlemas Buffalo Dance at the Pueblo of San Felipe, a maiden becomes, in effect, a heroine for a day when she ascends a mountain barefooted to bring down the Buffalo King and other animal dancers, who, in the course of the ceremony that follows, symbolically allow themselves to be sacrificed as food for the tribe. The maiden is the only female in the dance, and one senses that it is her giving of herself to the Buffalo King that makes the beneficial sacrifice possible.
In these rituals, we glimpse an older idea of heroism in which the ordinary individual one of us can be recognized as a hero only in a communal act, a breaking out of the merely personal life into a sacrificing of the individual to the larger communal self. There are remnants of this communal heroism in myths such as those of Hainuwele and the African Wanjiru, each of whom sank into the ground in the middle of a dance ground-itself the sacred symbol of a cultural “world” and through death brought new life.
It should be noted that in the established religions of our time, heroes exist whose values seem as attuned to these hypothetical ancient goddess traditions as to those of their patriarchal cultures. The mildness and humility of Jesus and the Buddha represent attempts to bring growth and change to the older heroic traditions. Both men place less emphasis than their cultures on old patriarchal laws and hierarchy. Both attempt to break down barriers between themselves and their people. But ultimately both fail to defeat the forces in their cultures that would distort their works and words in such a way as to create out of them new hierarchies, new power-based laws of dominance. This is especially true of Christianity, in which Jesus is raised by the institution named after him to the distant level of Son of God seated on a heavenly throne-an institution in which hierarchy and power and splendid palaces and temples early on become the visual symbols of the religion. There was the rise of the Virgin Mary from folk tradition as a de facto goddess to balance the dominance of traditional male values in the Church. But the Church fathers repressed much of Mary’s earth-based, non-separate nature by emphasizing her virginity and depriving her of sexuality even as she became, through her Assumption, like the old outlawed Asherah, Queen of Heaven, a position clearly separated from ours.
An Introduction to Homer’s Iliad
An Introduction to Homer’s Iliad
From The Iliad of Homer: Translated into English Prose (1891)
By John Purves
Courtesy of Internet Archive
[BACKGROUND by Jared Aragona: When Queen Hecuba of Troy was about to give birth to her son Paris, she had nightmare about giving birth to a torch writhing with snakes. Prophets told her it meant that the boy would bring about the destruction of Troy, and he should be killed. Mournfully, King Priam and Queen Hecuba entrust this killing to servants, but the servants can’t bring themselves to do it and just leave the baby out in the elements. Baby Paris is found and raised by a shepherd and grows up to be a shepherd himself. Years later, the marriage of the goddess Thetis to the hero Peleus (the parents of Achilles) is celebrated with a wedding organized by Zeus himself. Zeus didn’t want any strife at this wedding, so he didn’t invite Eris, the goddess of strife. Eris was offended and showed up anyway, and to get Zeus back, she threw a golden apple into the wedding hall, declaring it was for the most beautiful goddess. Hera, Athena, and Aphrodite all grabbed for it, and realizing their competition, asked Zeus to decide which of them should get the apple. Not wanting to choose between them, Zeus passes the judgment to a human – Paris the shepherd. Hermes takes all three goddesses to where Paris is shepherding sheep on the mountain. Hera tells Paris she’ll give him wealth and power if he chooses her. Athena says she’ll make him the wisest and most skilled of men if he chooses her. Aphrodite says she’ll give him the love of the most beautiful woman in the world if he chooses her. Paris chooses Aphrodite. Unfortunately, the most beautiful woman in the world is Helen, who had married Menelaus, king of Sparta after a contest among suitors. Shortly afterward, a bull that Paris the Shepherd had raised is chosen by King Priam as a prize for funeral games held in memorial of the death of his son Paris. Paris delivers the bull and Priam’s daughter Cassandra (who is a prophet) declares that Paris is the son Priam thinks is dead. So, it is as a Prince of Troy that Paris sails to Sparta to collect the reward for choosing Aphrodite as the recipient of the golden apple (a decision that would earn him and all of Troy the hatred of Hera and Athena). In Sparta, Paris is treated as a guest while Menelaus is called away from the city. During Menelaus’s absence, Paris convinces Helen to run away with him. Thanks to Aphrodite, she is in love with him, and she assents. When Menelaus learns of this, he and his brother Agamemnon rally all of their Greek allies to fight Troy and retrieve Helen. The goddess Thetis knew the prophesy that her son, Achilles, would die if he fought in the Trojan War, and tried to confer immortality upon him by dipping him in the River Styx, but she was not able to protect the heel where she held him, so the prophesy held. Thetis tried to dress him up as a girl when the Greek generals came for him, but he is tricked into revealing himself when the Greeks say invaders are coming, and Achilles rips off his girl’s clothes ready to fight. Afterward, he agrees to join the fight against the Trojans. It’s not long before Achilles and Agamemnon butt heads. The Iliad begins after the Greeks and Trojans have been fighting for ten years.]
BOOK I: After a short prelude, the poet enters on his subject He begins with a description of the plague which Apollo has sent upon the Grecian host in revenge for the treatment of his priest Chryses by Agamemnon. For when Chryses wished to ransom his daughter, the king sent him away with bitter reproaches, and bade him come no more to the camp. Then follows —
The scene in the assembly, in which the quarrel breaks out between Achilles and Agamemnon. Agamemnon yields so far as to give up Chryseis, but resolves to replace her by taking away the captive of Achilles — Briseis. Achilles is only restrained from open violence by the presence of Athene (54-317).
The scene at the tent of Achilles. Briseis is brought away by heralds whom Agamemnon has sent. After her departure Achilles laments to his mother, Thetis, the indignity which has been put upon him, and begs her to induce Zeus to give victory to the Trojans, that the Greeks may feel the need of his arm. This Thetis’ undertakes to do on the twelfth day when the gods have returned from the Aethiopians (318-429).
The restoration of Chryseis to her father. She is conducted home by Odysseus, who also brings a hecatomb to appease the god (430-492).
The scene in Olympus. Thetis appeals to Zeus to give he victory to the Trojans till the Achaeans make good the wrong which they have done to her son. Zeus after a time consents. When the gods assemble, Hera taunts him with his secret interview with Thetis; a quarrel arises in which Hephaestus acts as mediator. The Olympian day ends with feasting and song (493-611).
BOOK II: The second book takes up the story at the point where the first book ends. Intent on carrying out his promise to Thetis, Zeus sends a “pernicious”‘ dream to Agamemnon to persuade him to make an attack upon Troy on the morrow in the hope that he may take the city (1-47).
In the morning Agamemnon summons the Greeks to an assembly, but while they are gathering he calls together the chiefs and tells them of his dream. To these he makes the strange proposal, that while they urge the host to arm, he will propose in the assembly to abandon the war and go home; if the people agree to this, the chiefs must restrain them. The reason which he gives for this remarkable plan is the desire to test the feeling of the army (48-87).
The assembly. Agamemnon addresses the host, which at the close of his speech immediately rushes to the ships in eagerness to return home. As in the first book the divine intervention was needed to calm the wrath of Achilles, so it is now needed to prevent the war from coming to an untimely end. Athene descends and inspires Odysseus, who, partly by force and partly by persuasion, induces the Greeks to return once more to the assembly (88-207).
The second assembly; scene with Thersites. When the host is again assembled, Thersites, a man of the people, bitterly reviles Agamemnon, and again suggests a return home. Odysseus silences him with blows, and himself addresses the army, urging them to continue the war; he is followed by Nestor on the same side. Finally Agamemnon, who alludes with some regret to his quarrel with Achilles, not only urges the Achaeans to make careful preparations for battle, but threatens with death anyone who shrinks from his duty (208-400).
The assembly disperses. Agamemnon invites the chiefs to his tent, and sacrifices to Zeus with a solemn prayer that he may take Troy ere set of sun. The army is gathered together and arranged by its leaders, Athene inspiring it with courage. In numerous similes the poet describes its advance into the field (401-483).
The “Catalogue” (484-785) — which is arranged as follows. Boeotia comes first; round it, in geographical order, are collected Ofchomenus, Phocis, Locris, Euboea, Attica, Salamis, Aigolis, Achaea. Then follow the states to the south and west, from Laconia to Aetolia; then Crete and the eastern islands; and finally we come back to Thessaly.
That the Trojans may meet the Greeks, Iris is sent to Troy, where an assembly has met at the gates of Priam’s palace. At her suggestion Hector gives the word for battle, and the Trojans march out of the gates (786-811).
Catalogue of the Trojans, in which the Trojans and Dardanians come first, then the Felasgian and Thracian allies, and finally the Asiatic allies (812-end).
The “Catalogue” is commonly regarded as an addition to the original Iliad. This view rests partly on the general ground that the style of the ” Catalogue” is much nearer to that of the Hesiodic or Boeotian school of poetry than to the style of Homer; and partly on the occurrence of discrepancies between the “Catalogue” and the rest of the poem. A number of heroes are mentioned in the “Catalogue” who do not appear elsewhere in the Iliad, such as Nireus, Antiphus, Agapnor, Prothoiis, and others — names which, it is interesting to observe, do appear in the traditional catalogues of the suitors of Helen. On the other hand, a number of places are mentioned in the poem of which there is no notice in the “Catalogue,” such as the seven cities, “the last in sandy Pylos,” which, in Book IX., Agamemnon offers to Achilles — in fact, this part of the Peloponnesus^ which appears to be absolutely at Agamemnon’s disposal, is entirely passed over, whether by accident or design cannot be known. Once more, the centre of the ” Catalogue ” is not Mycenae, the abode of Agamemnon — but Boeotia, a part of Greece in which Achaeans and Danaans are never placed. But though in some respects unsuited to its place in the Uiad, the ” Catalogue” is no doubt an ancient enumeration of the cities of Greece with reference to the part which they played, or claimed to play, in Trojan legend. When it was inserted in its present place, the ” Catalogue” and the Iliad had both become so fixed in their structure that neither was altered to suit the other.
BOOK III: The third book opens with a description of the advance of the two armies; on the Trojan side all is shouting and noise: the Achaeans advance in silence, awaiting the command of their leaders. The two chief causes of the war are then brought before us. Paris is skirmishing in front of the Trojans, but at the sight of Menelaus, eager for vengeance, he retires to the crowd. Smarting under Hector’s reproof, he offers to meet Menelaus in single combat, and so decide, once for all, the possession of Helen and her goods (1-75).
Hector advances, and makes the challenge known to the Greeks. Menelaus accepts it, and proposes that solemn oaths be sworn binding either side to the terms. Priam is to swear on behalf of the Trojans. Upon this Hector sends heralds to bring Priam from the city, and makes preparations for a solemn oath and covenant. The fighting is suspended, and the two armies draw up separately (76-120).
The scene is now changed to Troy. In the likeness of Laodice, Iris informs Helen of the impending duel, and at her suggestion Helen comes out upon the walls to look on. Here, by the Scaean gate, she finds Priam and the elders of Troy assembled, who remark on her divine and fatal beauty (121-160). Priam calls her, and asks who certain of the Achaeans are, as he sees them in the field before the walls. Agamemnon is described, Odysseus, Ajax, Idomeneus, etc. But Helen’s brothers. Castor and Pollux, are nowhere to be seen (161-244).
The heralds now arrive, summoning Priam to take the oaths. As yet he has heard nothing of the proposed duel, but on receiving the summons he at once leaves for the battle-field. The oaths are sworn, the victims slain, and Priam returns to Troy. Hector and Odysseus mark out lists for the combat, and Hector casts lots who shall throw the first spear. The lot falls on Paris, whose arming is carefully described (245-339).
The duel Menelaus is getting the better and dragging off Paris by his helmet when Aphrodite intervenes by breaking the chin-strap. Menelaus again attacks, and in order to save her favourite Aphrodite carries away Paris from the battle to his house in Troy (340-382).
Aphrodite brings Helen back from the wall to Paris, much against her will. Helen reproaches him bitterly with his failure in the duel, but he nevertheless claims her love (383-447).
Menelaus seeks Paris on the field in vain. Agamemnon proclaims the victory of Menelaus (448-end).
The third book is of the greatest interest in the development of the story. Not only is Menelaus contrasted with Paris, to the great disparagement of the latter, but we are allowed to see the other leaders of the Greeks as the Trojans saw them. On the other hand, Helen is brought before us in all her beauty; we see her in her relations to Priam, and to Paris, to whom she is as it were bound by a spell. The feeling of the Trojans towards Paris, and especially the feeling of Hector, is strongly marked.
Had the covenant been duly carried out, Helen would now have been given back to the Achaeans, and the war would have come to an end. How little Paris dreams of such a surrender is shown by the scene between him and Helen at the end of the third book — a scene which thus becomes an integral part of the story. Nor could the war end thus if the promise of Zeus to Thetis is to be fulfilled, or the anger of those deities satisfied who are hostile to Troy. It is therefore necessary that the covenant should be annulled.
BOOK IV: The gods meet in counsel to debate the situation. At the suggestion of Hera, and with the consent of Zeus, Athene is sent down to induce the Trojans to break the oaths. Assuming the form of Laodocus she urges Pandarus the Lycian to shoot at Menelaus (1-103).
With elaborate and picturesque detail the poet describes the preparations of Pandarus and the wounding of Menelaus. The wound, however, is not mortal, and is quickly healed by Machaon; but the perfidy of the Trojans and the danger of Menelaus fill the Achseans with rage and grief; they are at last thoroughly roused for war. The Trojans on their part advance (104-222).
As commander-in-chief Agamemnon marshals the Achaeans. He passes through the army, chiding the slack and encouraging the forward (223-249). By this means we are brought face to face with all the great chieftains of the Achaeans: Idomeneus (250-271), the two Ajaces (272-291), Nestor (292-325), Menestheus and Odysseus (326-364), Diomedes and Sthenelus (365-422), whose importance is of course increased by the absence of Achilles. The armies then advance and the battle opens with slaughter on either side (423-end).
The story of the Iliad begins in good earnest with the fighting at the end of the fourth book, but before we go on with the analysis of the poem, a few words may be said on the incidents which have occupied us in the last three books. The action of the Achaeans in rushing to their ships for the purpose of returning home, and the conditions of the duel between Menelaus and Paris are of course inconsistent with the promise given by Zeus to Thetis at the end of the first book, but we may not conclude from this that these incidents did not form a part of the poet’s original design. The purpose of Zeus is known to himself only; it has not been revealed to the Greeks or the Trojans, who are therefore free to act according to their own inclinations. What so natural as that men who had been engaged nine years in a fruitless war should seize the opportunity of returning home? What so natural as that two armies engaged in a war which has arisen out of the conduct of two persons should agree to have the dispute settled by those two, and abide by the result? But these human inclinations, if left to take their natural course, would inevitably thwart the counsels of the gods, and therefore they are crossed by divine agency. Athene twice descends to earth — once to prevent the Greeks from embarking, and a second time to induce Pandarus to break the oaths. The inconsistency, therefore, with which we began, resolves itself into nothing more than the conflict of human purposes and divine.
Nor is the poet forgetful of his great theme — the wrath of Achilles. By the action of Thetis that wrath is as it were entered among the counsels of the gods; and in these books we see that Zeus will not suffer any action of Trojans or Achaeans to cancel, though for a time it may defer, the penalty which Agamemnon must pay for the wrong which he has done. This resolve he has also to carry out in spite of the opposition of Hera and Athene, who are eager to make an end of Troy at once. So far as these deities are hostile to the Trojans, Zeus can rely on their assistance in preventing the war from coming to a premature end; but by inhibiting the prowess of the Greeks in order to give honour to Achilles, he is in conflict with them.
The subject of the fifth book is the prowess of Diomedes, who in the absence of Achilles has an open field for the display of his valour. This theme is continued in the sixth book. In the fifth book also the deities come down and take part in the battle, on this side or that as they favour one or the other.
BOOK V: Encouraged by Athene, Diomedes slays one of the sons of Dares, and drives off his chariot; the other son escapes by the favour of Hephaestus, whose priest Dares is. Athene and Ares now agree to leave the battle-field. The Trojans are amazed and retire before the Danaans, whose chiefs are victorious, each slaying his man (1-83).
Diomedes bounds to the front, but he is wounded in the hand by an arrow shot by Pandarus. Athene heals him and bids him return to the fray, but not to engage with any of the deities but Aphrodite. He enters the battle with increased vigour, slaying the Trojans on every hand (84-165).
Aeneas, seeing the prowess of Diomedes, seeks out Pandarus in order to make a joint attack. Pandarus lays aside his bow; the two mount a chariot and drive against Diomedes, who slays Pandarus. Aeneas leaps down to protect the body, but Diomedes strikes him also with a stone on the hip. Aphrodite interposes to save her son, and prepares to carry him out of the battle (166-317).
Nothing daunted, Diomedes attacks Aphrodite as she is carrying Aeneas, and wounds her in the hand. She drops Aeneas, who is at once hidden in a cloud by Apollo. Aphrodite,wounded and lamenting, is led away by Iris to Ares, in whose chariot she returns to Olympus. Her mother, Dione, comforts her with stories of deities who have been wounded by men, —of Hera, Ares, and Hades. Athene and Hera make merry over Aphrodite’s wound; Zeus bids her remember that she has other cares than wars and conflicts (318-430).
Diomedes attacks Aeneas once more, though he is protected by Apollo, but Apollo repulses him with sharp reproaches. Then he conveys Aeneas to his temple, and going to Ares bids him enter the battle and check Diomedes (431-459).
Ares rouses the Trojans. Sarpedon calls on Hector, who rallies his forces, and Aeneas is restored by Apollo to the battle. On the other side the two Ajaces, Odysseus, Diomedes, and Agamemnon are busy encouraging their forces. Great deeds are done, but Diomedes is at length compelled to retire by Hector, when supported by Ares. Sarpedon slays Tlepolemus, but is himself in danger from Odysseus, when his companions come to the rescue (460-710).
Hera and Athene harness their chariot, and with the permission of Zeus they visit Troy-land. Hera encourages the Greeks; Athene invites Diomedes to attack Ares in spite of her previous prohibition. She enters the chariot with him, and the two make for Ares, whom Athene wounds. Ares returns to Olympus, and makes complaint to Zeus; he is received with bitter reproaches, but Paeon is nevertheless bidden to heal his wound. Athene and Hera also leave the battle (711- end).
BOOK VI: The Greeks and Trojans are left to carry on the war without the aid of the divine combatants. The battle rages indiscriminately, but the advantage is on the side of the Greeks (1-72).
Upon this Helenus, the Trojan seer, advises Hector and Aeneas to rally their forces, and when this is done Hector is to repair to Troy and bid the aged women make supplication to Athene in the Acropolis with the gift of a precious robe. This advice Hector follows and so leaves the field for the city (73-118).
Meanwhile Glaucus the Lycian’ and Diomedes meet Glaucus tells the story of his race, which is derived from Grecian ancestors. The two agree to avoid each other in the fight, and in confirmation of their compact they exchange armour (119-236).
The scene now changes to Troy, whither we are carried by Hector, who returns to the city to fulfil the bidding of Helenus. First he visits his mother, whom he asks to lead a procession of aged women to the temple of Athene, in the hope that they may propitiate her with a gift, and engage her to bring to an end the prowess of Diomedes. This request is at once performed, but in vain (237-310).
Next he visits the palace of Paris, whom he reproaches for his absence from the battle-field. Helen joins in the reproof, while giving an affectionate welcome to Hector. Paris promises to join Hector as he leaves the city (311- 368).
Hector then passes on to his own house, but Andromache has gone out to see the battle from the walL Hector goes in search of her; meeting of Hector with his wife and child — whom he now sees for the last time. After parting with Andromache he is overtaken by Paris, and the two brothers leave the city (369-end).
Apart from its dramatic interest the close of the sixth book is of high value, for the light in which it places the character of Hector. The scene with Andromache is doubt-less intended for comparison with the scene at the end of the third book between Paris and Helen, but we are also allowed to see Hector with his mother and with Helen, whom he treats with a gracious kindness. And we may notice here that the poet of the twenty-fourth book, whether he was the poet of the rest of the Iliad or not, has placed the last word of lamentation over the great Trojan — not in the mouth of Andromache, or Hecabe — but in the mouth of Helen, a pathetic touch which cannot be due merely to the fact-that Helen stood in a less close relation to him than the other two.
As indications of the epic manner, so careless of consistency in things which are immaterial, we may notice: (1) that the duel with Menelaus is all but ignored in the interview of Paris and Hector; (2) that nothing is said in the interview of Hector with Paris and Andromache of the object which he had in view in returning to Troy.
BOOK VII: We return to the battle-field with Hector and Paris. Athene and Apollo meet by the oak-tree, and arrange to put an end to the indiscriminate fighting by urging Hector to challenge one of the Greeks to single combat (1-42).
Helenus, who as a seer is aware of the wishes of the gods, urges Hector to challenge some Greek to single combat, assuring him that his day of doom is not yet come, and to bid the rest cease from fighting. Hector at once agrees to the proposal; the ranks on both sides are kept back while Hector proposes a new duel Menelaus rises to accept the challenge, but Agamemnon restrains him, declaring that Hector is his superior — Hector, whom even Achilles shuddered to meet. Nestor vainly regrets his lost youth, but nevertheless nine chiefs come forward and offer themselves for battle: the lot falls on Ajax (43-199).
The duel of Hector and Ajax, which is left indecisive, though going against Hector, is finally broken off by the approach of night. Hector and Ajax interchange gifts (200-312).
The Greek chiefs assemble for consultation in the tent of Agamemnon. After the banquet Nestor proposes: (1) that the corpses of the slain be collected and burnt before the ships; (2) that a wall be built for the defense of the ships (313-344).
In like manner the Trojans hold an assembly in the acropolis of their city — being in much alarm and trepidation. Antenor proposes to give back Helen and her goods, but Paris will not hear of the restoration of Helen. Priam proposes that an envoy be sent to Agamemnon to ask for a truce in which to bury their dead, and the envoy is also to propose the restoration of Helen’s goods. The Greeks in their assembly reject, on the proposal of Diomedes, the offer of Helen’s goods, but assent to the truce (345-420).
Collection and burial of the corpses on both sides. This occupies a whole day (421-432).
On the next day the Achaeans build their wall with a trench in front for the security of the ships; leaving only one passage for the horses. This also occupies the whole of the day. Poseidon is indignant at the work, which has been built without hecatombs, and is also a disparagement to himself and Apollo. Zeus promises that Poseidon shall have full liberty to erase the wall after the departure of the Achaeans. The Achaeans spend the night in feasting after their labours (433-end).
Though the seventh book is closely joined on to the sixth by the opening lines, the incidents which are related in it are by no means well connected. The cessation of warfare is unexpected, and not less so the duel of Hector and Ajax, which ends lamely enough. No reason is given why the Trojans should be in such fear and trepidation as to propose that Helen should be restored, or why the Achaeans should suddenly resolve to protect their ships with a wall. Equally without a ” motive ” is the desire which now comes on both sides to collect and bury the dead. The truth is that this book represents a pause in the story between the fighting which began in the second book and now comes to an end, and the renewal of the battle on a larger and fiercer scale under the impulse of Zeus, which forms the second great division of the poem. In this second conflict the wall which is now built is indispensable.
BOOK VIII: Zeus holds an assembly of the gods in which he forbids book any deity to aid either side under pain of punishment, enforcing the threat by a declaration of his superior power. Athene replies, assenting to withdraw from the battle, yet commiserating the Trojans. Zeus yokes his chariot and repairs to Gaigarus on Mount Ida» whence he watches the battle (1-52).
The Trojans and Greeks meet in battle once more. Zeus, seeing them, holds up a balance, and finds the doom of the Greeks depressed He announces the will of destiny by thunder from Ida, sending a flash into the midst of the Greeks, to their great alarm. Retreat of the Greeks, and danger of Nestor, who is saved by Diomedes. The two make for Hector, whose charioteer is slain. The Trojans are being repressed, when Zeus checks the further career of Diomedes by a thunder-bolt, and on the advice of Nestor Diomedes retires, in spite of the taunts of Hector (53-166).
Exultation of Hector, who threatens to fire the ships. He is eager to strip Nestor of his shield and Diomedes of his corset. His triumphant words arouse the indignation of Hera who attempts, but in vain, to induce Poseidon to fight in behalf of the Greeks. The Greeks are now driven behind their trench, upon the walL Hera seeing their position urges Agamemnon to rally them and keep Hector from the ships. At the prayer of Agamemnon Zeus in pity sends a favourable omen. The battle rages, all the chiefs of the Greeks taking part in it; Teucer is busy with his bow, but he cannot hit Hector, and is at length stricken down by a stone from Hector’s hand. Hector’s prowess is seen on every side (167-349).
Anger of Hera and Athene, who now perceive that Zeus is fulfilling

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