Application of Theoretical and Practical Models of Urban Development

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Application of Theoretical and Practical Models of Urban Development

Introduction

Modern urbanization and development demands that man be responsible to the way he plans and organizes the available resources so as to accommodate the present and future economic, political and social needs. Overtime, man has been making progress in this field, but he has met several challenges. The demand for eco-towns seems real for better human existence, yet its demands on carbon emission control, environmental concerns, energy use and re-use and recycling among others seems to be the key obstacles.

This is for example, because industrialization demands growth in industries both in quality and number which means that more land needs to be spared for this use, more carbon waste products are to be generated, and unfortunately more people may be dislocated from the urban centers which are the more favorable places for industries as a result of improved security, transport and other resources. In addition, man may want to win in all situations relating to environment, social and economic dimensions leading to a need for compromise among them. The need to avoid urban sprawls like land-use, efficient energy use, solving transport and related issues may lead to the need for evolution of urban forms for example in the UK.

According to Pestel (1972,p1; qtd in Yaneske) growth in resource depletion, pollution, population and industrialization would lead to growth limit in about a hundred years time which would cause reduction in world population and industrial capacity. However, these problems were controllable through a stable and sustainable economic and ecological system that alters the growth of the sectors.

Historically, man has realized the need for more organized neighborhoods, beautiful and magnificent architecture, as well as urban centers that are attractive to economic development. This paper examines the ideas of eco-towns, ideality of them, need for adjustment in the present trend, case studies and necessary research on this topic.

Aim

To analyze the existing theoretical models for designing of eco-towns, determine their current and future applicability in view of the existing case studies and design models and propose adjustments.

Objectives

To examine and understand the theoretical conception, ideas, and existing ideas on the architectural designs of eco-towns
To discuss the problems related to design of eco-towns, need for improvement and future of eco-towns while relating issues of case studies

Hypothesis

The demand for eco-towns is mainly driven by the need to organize the existing resources so as to accommodate economic, social and political needs. While advancing this agenda, man finds out that in order to continue living well in present and future, he must take care of the environment. Many of the local authorities and other developers involved in designing and building of urban centers are beginning to put into practice the existing theoretical models and concepts for development of eco-towns. The present challenges to man such as global warming are as a result of his past activities, behavior or trend, and better future demands careful planning and organization even far outreaching to architectural design of towns.

Research questions

What are eco-towns, the applicability of the theoretical models and their architectural or design and other demands?
Are there any existing models of eco-towns?
What drives the need and demand for eco-towns?
What are the present and future challenges facing man in the development of eco-towns and what needs to be done?

Research methodology

This paper will consider developed ideas and concepts developed by authors, academicians and experts in the architectural design of eco-towns and urban centers in general by the available secondary resources such as books, articles and website information. The paper will discuss case studies presented in the theory considered. This is because case studies will present the real existing aspects related to the study and these will be used to determine and measure the appropriateness of the existing concepts, ideas and opinions on design of eco-towns, design of urban centers as well as the present and future challenges among other related issues.

Again, since local authorities architects and other developers would be involved in the development of urban centers, case studies would estimate whether they practically understand the concept of eco-towns, need for them, and the present and future challenges related to designing of eco-towns. The researcher will propose case studies, analyze them and weigh them by using the presented theoretical models and information and seek to make recommendations in view of the present and future challenges while considering the present situation.

Eco-towns

The concept of eco-towns has been developed in view of the environmental, social and economic concerns. The three are linked in that improvement in one aspect would contribute in the improvement of other. For example, improvement in the environmental sector would lead to more improved living conditions both for man and the wildlife. This would favor other economic activities such as tourism. Eco-towns have been described as towns which respond positively to the aspects or concerns of housing supply, change in climate and sustainable living (Department for Communities and Local Government, 2008). In addition, they are towns which have zero carbon emissions, new focus to affordable housing, efficient waste recycling systems, as well as energy conservation among other issues.

Eco-towns focus on wastes, food, consumer goods, energy, housing and construction, and business among other aspects so as to result in improved quality of life, ecological limits, caters for social and economical needs and environment sustainability (CABE, 2008). These ideas face various difficulties in realization such as lack of support of the main ideas by influential players, lack of knowledge on the theoretical models of design of urban centers and related challenges such as cost of realization.

Literature review

Tradition has presented a world largely divided into urban and rural settings where the earlier is characterized by consumption of the rural produce and the latter provision of agriculture produce. Golany views that designing future must require that we look at the past, and that we lack much in sensitivity to the natural environment which was possessed by our ancestors as a consequence to our lack of managing urban growth and designing urban.

According to the author, future design developments or the technology should fuse technology and social values. The author also conceives that mans historical creativity and actions have resulted into his interfering with the processes of natural environment to produce the Human-made Environments which include components such as rural and urban construction, growth in technology as well as economic dynamics.

Since ninetieth centurys industrial revolution, designing of urban centers has been complex due to immediate growth of urban centers. In 1950s through 1960s to 1970s, there was a great housing problem in England and the government realized the need for mass housing for rental purposes. However, lessons to develop more mixed housing tenures and types in order to achieve integration of societies, quality management of housing, need for locating houses closer to other social amenities like schools, were learnt. Building of quality house-estates in the 1980s and 1990s by the private sector didnt also achieve sustainability for communities.

Problems of housing such as inadequate housing and poor housing have been linked to unstable macro-economics as well as nation economic competitiveness of a country (Barker, 2004). The flexibility in labor market is negatively affected by poor supply of housing according to this economist. Eco-towns ideas were built based on the ideas of proper planning of urban centers to result to zero carbon emissions hence better environmental concerns, affordability of homes by making them cheaper, improved waste re-use and recycling systems, mixed and sustainable communities of up to 20,000 individuals as well as systems that support economic development.

According to another review by Barker, development was driven by planning engraved in the planning policy and it should help the government deliver its vision for the locality. The ideas of the author are supported by the views of other authors who view towns as economic drivers of a country, and this means they should be designed and planned to play this role.

The emissions of carbon and generation of wastes are as a result of poor policy formulation and implementation in some countries. Growth in industrialization such as in the fuel industry has increased emission of gases like carbon dioxide, generation of poisonous and other wastes. This trend also tends to be worse in towns where most of the industries are located due to improved infrastructure, security and demand.

Urbanization and need for better lifestyles has encouraged usage of private means of transport which contributes to emission of gases that contribute to pollution and global warming. In addition, social problems such as insecurity and related fear, poor housing and other problems may increase if no careful planning and design is put in place. Therefore, countries must rethink ways of designing and re-designing towns so as to correct the abnormalities that are possible in future.

Case study

There is historical development that indicates the planning and design of urban centers in the history of man. For example, Mesopotamian cities houses were densely built in concideration of the agricultural and defense needs. There was walk-able distance from the core of the city to the outside of the city gate, a trading site outside the gate, and an open space around the gate of the city for social gatherings and a place of meeting to settle disputes by the elders.

Surrounding the city walls were the agricultural fields (Golany, 1995). In the past, man was not faced with complex challenges in the environment such as global warming or rather he was not much careful about the developments. However, man is realizing the need to carefully be concerned with environmental care and other issues even by designing of towns and urban centers. This is because the idea of eco-town harbors in it the need for ecological concern, sustainability of environment for example through ideas of energy conservation and waste recycling.

In Greenwich Millennium Village which is not yet complete has been said to be located in lively street and squares, and 20% of the built 1400 homes are affordable. The houses could be raised to 2500 in a newly sought plan and would include new health centres, shops, restaurants and schools, 20 hectares of parkland and an ecology park, and space for commercial floor (5000 square meters).

The materials used for construction includes 30-40% recycled wood and aluminium and achieves reduced construction waste (50%), reduced use in energy (80%) and generating electrical energy through CHP that achieves centralized electricity, heating and hot water. In addition, flushing of toilets is through rainwater that is stored and uses Grey water recycling. The buildings, which were shaped and located taking care of effects of easterly winds to achieve moderate effects by Architects Ralph Erskine and EPR also utilizes natural sun energy for lighting and heating.

The village also has a linkage between Jubilee line station at North Greenwich and bus service integrating pedestrian movement and public transport in an attempt to achieve car-free status.

According to Yvette Cooper who was the Minister of State for Housing in 2007, buildings were responsible for close to half of the carbon emissions, and there was need to make adjustments in place and building designs to achieve sustainability. There was launched an initiative for eco-towns in England which sought to build 5 new eco-towns by 2016 and raise the figure to 10 by 2020, although it faced resistance.

The eco-town ideas that have been developed so far in the building of eco-towns in England include the decision to have one acre of land supporting 100 houses, and the integration of social amenities like schools and shop facilities in a close distance to reduce reliance on the vehicle as a means of transport (Chapmann, 2008). This is because cars generate carbon waste leading to global warming. There will be about 30-50% of eco-towns represented as affordable houses with sizes and tenures mixed up. According to the prospectus projected, the small towns are to connect to major towns, have better supply for facilities and attractive places.

Again, they should have a target of minimum of 5000 homes and a maximum of 20,000 to generate critical mass possible for developing and trying-out technologies which result in zero-carbon production, provide for leisure and business space, be furnished with facilities like schools and shopping centers. There will be a body to manage the affairs of the towns such as development, supporting those moving to the towns, managing the delivery of the services and facilities as well as managing businesses. In addition, there were prospects to apply intensively the technologies related to environment, design of the environment and resource efficiency.

In the sustainability and urban form dimension, there is need for the UK to change energy consumption trend which would further increase as homes continue to grow in number and achieve a 60% reduction in carbon emission by 2050. The UK developmental policy seeks to achieve an equals in environmental, social and economic aspects. The policy contents include support through Neighborhood renewal fund, Local development plans, Local Agenda 21 and Sustainable Communities Plan among others. There are areas that have been identified as sustainable communities. Areas identified in the South as sustainable communities for example include Cambridge, Stansted, Milton Keynes, and South Midlands.

Eco-towns were also according to the guidelines expected to meet the European Union ambient air quality standards, and utilize state-of-the-art waste recycling system. Development of lighting and surveillance systems would ensure reduced likelihoods of crime and related fear while public space designing would ensure that people mix. In addition, cities would be required to compliment green nature, architecture and ecology together in the designed cities.

An example of a town that demonstrates the conservation of environment and that can be emulated is the construction of a town Camborne in England. The design for this city is indicated by the fact that a green infrastructure was first put in place before the allocation of areas for a business park and housing. The 6 ponds, water-courses and old edges are connected by means of cycle-paths and footpaths. There are also natural woodlands and meadows as well as wetlands and demonstrates the conservation of wildlife (Department for Communities and Local Government, 2008). Green infrastructure would mean more beautiful places to live in.

In Stockholm, power used in some buses is generated from gas after the treatment of sewage some of which is used in cooking. Such kind of a project would ensure that the idea of recycling of waste in an eco-town is possible. This would mean lesser waste which would lead to a cleaner environment which is better to live in and support other socio-economic activities such as tourism. Thus eco-towns would also be better placed to act as better income generators for the countries they are in. his activity also supports reduction of energy consumed through other means like electricity and conservation of energy.

Reduced usage of fuels that carry Sulphur and other components which burn to produce emissions that contribute to global warming would also be reduced since use of power from recycled waste would reduce dependency on fossil fuels. In addition to more accommodative environment, reduction of wastes through recycling would mean lesser demand for landfills and therefore more places for agriculture and settlement. Challenges related to cost of production and recycling would also be reduced if alternative measures of energy production such as waste recycling are explored.

Need for adjustments in the current trends

Although there is remarkable concern in the development of more accommodative environment in the future such as building of eco-towns which may be supported by ideas such as the Kyoto Protocol and the Mellenium Development Goals, there is need for individual governments to implement changes so as to support these ideas. In the design of cities and towns, local authorities for example in many countries have demonstrated lack of knowledge in the models of designs that could help in development of eco-towns. This is by giving preference to political and other personal and non-personal issues of lesser concern or benefit.

Countries should seek to develop guidelines and methodical approaches such as those by European Union that make cities contribute to sustainability without being derailed by decisions of local or national leaders or other people with no special knowledge on sustainability. For example, the development of the Emissions Trading Schemes which require companies emit excess of the allocated amount of CO₂ by purchasing allowances from the market, and allowing selling of extra allowances of emissions by companies which produce lesser than the allocated. The ETS also makes the decision-makers in the industry realize the advantages of reducing emission and disadvantages of emission of Carbon dioxide such as its cost (Yaneske, n.d).

In addition, political influence has impacted negatively in the advancement of the world ideas such as the Kyoto and MDG ideas for example lack of support by some influential countries and this may drag realization of eco-towns in some parts of the world since the ideas of eco-towns and the aforementioned world ideas seem to intermarry. This trend should be averted.

References

Barker Kate. Barker Review Housing Supply: Delivering Stability Securing Our Future Housing Needs. Final Report Recommendations. HM Treasury, 2004, p 1.

Barker Kate. Barker Review Land Use Planning Final Report Recommendations. HM Treasury, 2006.

CABE. (2008). Eco-towns must demonstrate real and measurable sustainable living. Web.

Chapmann Tess. Eco-Towns: Is there One Near You? 2008. Sky News. Web.

Department for Communities and Local Government: London. (2008). Ecotowns: Living a greener future. Web.

Golany G. (1995). Ethics and Urban Design: Culture, Form, and Environment. John Wiley and Sons Inc.

Pastel, E. (1972). The Limits to growth. Abstract. A report to the club of Rome. Web.

Yaneske P. & Hildebrand F. Visions of Sustainability. London: Routledge.

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