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Introduction
The rapid increase in body dissatisfaction rates at the dawn of the 21st century has attracted the attention of scientists, researchers, clinicians, and psychologists (Markey & Markey, 2010)& Negative body image contributes to different psychological and physical consequences such as dieting, obesity, anorexia, bulimia, and other extreme measures of weight and appearance control. The issue of body image is most acute for adolescents whose pubertal development results in physical changes. Further, at this age, adolescents start experiencing romantic relationships that promote precise attention to their body image and weight status. As a result, a large percentage of girls (up to 90%) and boys (up to 75%) experience body dissatisfaction (Markey, & Markey, 2010).
In this article, the influence of media on the socialization of children will be discussed in detail. In particular, it is noted that children are influenced to adopt some of the behaviors that might be detrimental to their growth and development. The media portray some human features to be of value as compared to others. For instance, slimness is associated with beauty, whereas boldness is associated with primitiveness (Prabu, Natali, & German, 2009).
Therefore, studies conducted about body image allow us to determine several factors that influence high rates of body dissatisfaction among adolescents. Family relationships play a considerable role in a persons development and perception of body image. From a study conducted by Dohnt and Tiggermann (2006), one can say that the influence of parents is explicit regarding the childrens body image formation. Parental encouragement of activities aimed at losing weight and keeping to a diet is likely to provoke body dissatisfaction among their children (Markey, & Markey 2010). Peer communication also contributes to shaping adolescents feelings and perceptions of their bodies. Regular peer interactions dedicated to the issues of beauty and appearance cause lead to the development of unwanted human behavior, which would lead to body dissatisfaction. In addition to peers and parents influence, the contemporary media produce the substantial impact on childrens body image. Television, cinema, radio, the internet, and print media affect young peoples understanding of their own bodies and the standards they should try to achieve in terms of physical beauty. Therefore, the present paper will focus on investigating the extent to which various socializing agents such as, particularly the media, influences childrens, and adolescents body image (Watson, 2006).
Defining Body Image and Prevalence Rates
The recent statistics from the mental journal indicate that the dramatic increase of childrens dissatisfaction with their bodies calls for investigations into the causes of such behavior. In one of the recent studies, 28.7% of people aged 20 to 24 of individuals are dissatisfied with their bodies (Markey, & Markey 2010). Some scholarly sources indicate that even higher rates of dissatisfaction are encountered among the childrens peers. Therefore, the mental health organization initiated research to define the problem and to outline possible solutions to it. This followed close attention to the issue of body image and body dissatisfaction. For instance, Slades (1988, p. 87) definition of the term body image implies that it is ones subjective attitude toward ones own physical appearance. It can include both ones own mental images and perceptions of his or her body as well as the feelings one
Both men and women experience body dissatisfaction, which results in psychological discomfort about their body shapes and weight. It is established that the body sizes is the leading cause of dissatisfaction. Body sizes are effects of poor diets because unbalanced diet leads to development of obesity. For instance, a study conducted by Radar programs limited on Media Influence proved that more than one third of women and 25% of men keep to different kinds of diet at any given moment of time. At the same time, Ryan & Morrison observed that two out of five women and about 20% of all men would forgo 3-5 years of their lives for the sake of obtaining the physical shape of their dream.
From the above statistics, it can be observed that due to media influences, people possess inaccurate perceptions of their bodies. For example, the above study indicated that three out of four females believe they are overweight, while only one out of four is obese. Media has promoted the beauty ideal that is hardly achievable for ordinary people. Thus, an average model weighs 117 pounds being 511 tall while an average woman weighs 140 pounds being 54 tall. A woman weighing 140 pounds is perceived to be healthy since weight would make her attractive irrespective of the beauty. At such weight, a woman must perform her duties well (Hayes & TantIeff-Dunn, 2010).
Research on Childrens and Youths Body Image Dissatisfaction
Adults obsession with body image is frequently passed on to younger generations. A strong relationship has been found between the early dissatisfaction with the body shape in children, and images in writings of various scholars on the body sizes. This means that characters possessing positive behavioral traits such as kindness, success, and contentedness are frequently depicted as young, thin, and beautiful human beings. At the same time, the characters reflecting evil are illustrated as ugly, unattractive, and flabby (Hayes & TantIeff-Dunn, 2010). A number of scholars support these statements in their studies of childrens animated movies where thin characters being courteous and kind they tend to prevail over the flabby ones, who are considered rude and aggressive. Thus, the contemporary media identify positive behavioral traits with pretty appearances and slim bodies (Seon-Kyoung, & Doohwang, 2010).
Older children also have a number of problems with the adequate assessment of their body image (Hayes & TantIeff-Dunn, 2010). Champion and Furnham (1999) investigated a number of earlier empirical works dedicated to understanding body dissatisfaction among adolescent girls. The majority of girls starting from the age of nine think they are overweight. According to Champion and Furnham (1999), their weight seems to be inappropriate for the existing standards of physical attractiveness. Paxton, Wertheim, Gibbons, Szmukler, Hillier, & Petrovich, (1991) conducted a survey of 221 male and 341 female high school students. Their assessment indicated that two thirds of both boys and girls considered thin believe body proportions are a substantial factor influencing their lives. In other words, they value their thin body sizes in different capacities. Moreover, 13% of girls admitted engaging in at least one extreme behavior for weight losing per week (Paxton et al., 1991).
Some scholars have suggested different views that explain the influence of body sizes to the lives of children. This would mean that there is contrary evidence reflecting childrens dissatisfaction with their bodies because of their thinness. Thus, Dohnt and Tiggemann (2006) identified that 60% of 5-year-old children want their bodies to be fatter and heavier than they perceive them to be. However, most of the works dedicated to the study of the body image and its impacts on children reveal that there is tendency where children aged of six years experience dissatisfaction as regards to their bodies. Hayes and TantIeff-Dunn (2010) explained this trend by exploring childrens age development. While babies and young children engage in pretend plays through adopting the character role, older children focus on social comparisons with characters they adore. Thus, children over six are able to recognize the discrepancies between their bodies and popularized standards of physical beauty (Hayes & TantIeff-Dunn, 2010). As a result, popular beauty messages arouse body dissatisfaction and other negative manifestations among children and girls in particular.
Girls vs. Boys
Body dissatisfaction has always been considered more prevalent among girls and women than it is among boys and men. However, recent research indicates that boys and men are increasingly likely to report body dissatisfaction (Ricciardelli, 2003), Cafri et al. (2004), Grogan (1998), Champion and Furnham (1999). Moreover, adoration of the beauty of the female body is a historical trend observed by many authors and researchers, which indicates that both girls and boys are subjected to beauty ideals via the media and popular culture that dictates what their bodies should look like. Popular culture implies that women should be feminine while men should be masculine. Femininity is associated with thin bodies while masculinity is related to muscles meaning men should have strong muscles. Female ideals are conceptualized as more rigid and unachievable in the modern media, which brings about greater rates of dissatisfaction with their bodies nowadays. Nevertheless, male ideals of body image also exist, which are reinforced by various media. Hence, males have become obsessed with developing a muscular figure that often leads to health-threatening behaviors such as use of steroids, ephedrine, and dangerous diets (Cafri, 2004)
The present trends regarding body image among children have been observed within centuries, and they continue to be true at the contemporary period despite the societal revolution that took place in the middle of the 20th century and marked the fundamental change in womens perceptions regarding themselves. These changes have been brought about by cultural evolution and industrialization, which have altered the perceptions of females regarding their bodies. The size and shape have been transformed in the contexts of health and attractiveness.
Thus, thin body types promoted by the contemporary fashion magazines and other resources (Grogan, 1998), replaced ample curves of women in the middle Ages. Today, slimness is associated not only with physical beauty, but it has become a symbol of self-control, youthfulness, elegance, success, and social attractiveness. The fashion industry has produced and popularized a vast amount of the physically impossible, tall, thin, and busty Barbie-doll stereotype models like Claudia Schiffer and Elle MacPherson (Grogan, 1998, p. 204). Though todays female body image involves a muscle tone as, which reflects gender equality, slenderness has remained the key feature of the social perception of womens physical beauty (Grogan, 1998).
It is obvious that muscles are observed better on slim bodies with flat stomachs. Though men are typically less obsessed by the media images and are less apt to have dissatisfaction with their bodies, their perceptions regarding their own bodies is also shaped by social factors such as media images, peer pressure, self-identity, and self-esteem (Kirk Kiss, & Burgess-Limerick, 2004). Thus, men are reported to see slenderness and muscularity as symbols of fitness, and believe that this shape of mens bodies is strongly associated with being in control of ones own eating and lifestyle habits (Grogan, 2008). As a result, the contemporary culture and its perception of bodily beauty affect both women and men of all ages.
Consequences of Body Dissatisfaction
The issue of body image, its impact on womens life styles, and the perception of female beauty have been a popular topic since the second part of the twentieth century. Markey and Markey (2010) stated that at the start of the twentieth century, body image studies initially focused on personality or self-concept and frequently scrutinized samples of psychologically impeded or if not psychologically ailing or impaired individuals sense of self (not essentially their physical body). From the above statement, the body image research, which emerged in the 1980s as a natural consequence of the growing interest in eating disorders, indicates the connection of many disorders cases with the body dissatisfaction. Today, the topic of the body issue is not only adopted by medical, social, or psychological journals but is also intensely discussed by a variety of adolescent-oriented magazines and other information sources (Markey, & Markey, 2010).
As it has already been mentioned, one of the substantial negative consequences of girls obsession with the current body image is low levels of self-esteem. Unreal standards of body beauty promoted by media and social culture are impossible for girls to achieve. Affected by media, family, and peers, most of the contemporary girls take a number of actions to make their bodies slimmer (Krcmar et al. 2008). This psychological dependence on popular culture and beauty norms results in eating disorders. Thus, the researchers showed that today 50% of girls under 15 start dieting (Champion & Furnham, 1999). To contrast, the US Center for Disease Control revealed that the majority of American states except few have obesity prevalence among children over 25% (Bissell, & Hays, 2011). This shows that eating disorder is one of the major causes of poor body shapes among children. Therefore, low self-esteem is caused by unreal standards of physical attractiveness, which is promoted by social culture. The behavior provokes two main physical consequences, which are closely connected with childrens psychological condition. As a result, many of the modern children suffer from either anorexia or obesity.
Anorexia and bulimia are considered psychological diseases since they are an eating disorder evolved due to emotional desires rather than physical inability to consume food. In an attempt to achieve body proportions as those promoted by media culture, girls try their best to perform physical exercises and check on their diet. Those unable to control their eating practices use other dieting methods, which would perhaps result in poor health condition. Research reported that 13% of the 10th grade students try to emulate some behaviors that would help them develop desired body shapes such, by using laxatives and diuretics. Some use unscrupulous techniques such as those that facilitate vomiting. The studies of various scholars discover that free access to the contemporary media resources, which encourage slim body beauty, results in both intentional and unintentional restrains of food consumption. Thus, the influence of the beauty culture on girls mentality and psychology is evident.
Another serious consequence of the popularization of slenderness is obesity. Since children are unable to achieve desired physical proportions, they would probably forfeit eating in order to become seemingly beautiful and attractive. While fashion model become thinner, females are considered getting heavier. Being fat, which is contrary to the models weight, is associated with a number of negative social attributes such as lethargy, self-indulgence, and slovenliness (Champion & Furnham, 1999). Children introduced to such weight interpretations and beauty stereotypes experience problems as regards to eating behaviors from early childhood. As opposition to the current standards of physical attractiveness, a vast number of todays children suffer from obesity. A range of studies conducted by American organizations such as the US Center for Disease Control and National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey team identified high rates of children classified as overweight (Bissell, & Hays, 2011). The severity of body image consequences is essential to investigate media, family, and peer surrounding as the major factors of childrens obsession with the body perfection.
Media Influence
Media have become an inseparable part of everyday life; it is present everywhere at home, at work, in the street, etc. One of the most popular and thus, powerful components of media is television. Millions of people spend hours in front of their TVs watching shows, observing new fashion trends, and listening to the broadcast ideas and concepts. The impact produced by the television content is significant; however, it is obvious that it is much greater in the context of children and teenagers who learn a considerable amount of information and are acquainted with society through the television. Females who start comparing themselves with media ideals while developing a sense of self-awareness (Northup & Liebler, 2010) represent a large number of the youth audience. Most of the childrens favorite shows aired on Nickelodeon and Disney Channel promote thinness as a beauty standard and emphasize the necessity of possessing physical attractiveness. There is a vast amount of publications discussing whether media influences kids perception of beauty and society and their behavioral traits or not. The most prominent accomplishment in this field is the Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura; thus, it is reasonable to examine its concepts in this work.
Social Leaning Theory of Albert Bandura
In 1977, Albert Bandura suggested his Theory that has turned out to be one of the main studies in the framework of knowledge and growth. Based on the traditional approach, Banduras theory includes a social element as a core factor of learning enforcement. The main concepts of Banduras Social Learning Theory comprise the assumptions that people learn through observations; internal mental state makes its contribution to the process, and learnt information does not result in a behavioral change. Banduras theory is of a terrific value not only for psychologists, but also for those individuals involved in the sphere of education since it emphasizes the importance of behavior modeling in the classroom environment. Thus, it is essential to discuss its concept in detail to clarify factors contributing to childrens sense of self-efficacy and encouraging them to perform some kinds of conduct.
Bandura proclaimed that observational learning is an integrated component of learning. Through his studies and observations in this field, Bandura discovered that children imitate behaviors seen in other people. One of Banduras experiments concerned a Bobo doll expressing aggressive ways of conduct. Children start imitating aggressive actions and behaviors when asked to play with the doll. On this basis, Bandura determined three models of learning through observations a live model, a symbolic model, and a verbal instructional one. The first involves an actual person demonstrating some behavioral traits; the second is applied to fictional or real characters acting out behaviors in films, TV shows, or books. The third model entails elucidation and depiction of different actions. Therefore, media resources are the subjects of one of the basic model of observational learning. It is possible to conclude that characters and individuals illustrated by media provoke some behavioral norms possessed by children (Krahé, & Krause, 2010).
Another concept of Banduras Social Learning Theory concerns intrinsic reinforcement. Thus, such mental states as satisfactions, pride, or sense of accomplishment produce a considerable impact on the learning process. Through this concept, Bandura connects learning studies with theories of cognitive development. In the context of media influence on children, one may assert that positive attitude towards media content and personal desire to be and look like beloved media characters touch upon cognitive processes of children. Thus, media influence childrens perception of different life concepts not only through eyesight, but also through mental states. The third Banduras concept claims that observational learning does not surely lead to the change in behavior.
However, the modeling process proposed by Bandura comprises steps covered by the contemporary media. A person is likely to model behaviors seen under the following conditions are present attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Effective learning requires full attention; thus, the content should be entertaining and catching. The ability to comprehend and store information is a key factor for the observational learning. When the information is acquired and preserved, it is time to put into practice the performance of the acquired action. Motivation plays the crucial role in provoking behavior imitations with the learner; punishment and reinforcement are the key components of motivation.
The contemporary media address all the stated above aspects; it provides fascinating content catching childrens attention in the way to make it clear and understandable by children. Being obsessed with characters observed most kids are eager to imitate behaviors of their ideals. Media resources provide vivid example where thin and beautiful characters are always rewarded with love, money, or career while ugly individuals express jealousy and dissatisfaction with life challenges. Individuals possessing such virtues as honesty, kindness and obedience always get something considerable in return while characters experiencing malice, envy, or deception are punished. Thus, children are highly motivated to adopt and exercise some particular behaviors in life. The investigation of Banduras Social Learning Theory allows asserting that its principles advocate for significant impact produced by media on children.
Media Resources Influencing Kids Behavior
There is a wide range of media resources present and available in the modern life. Television, radio, and advertising are probably the major media manifestations present in a rich diversity. The most popular and consumed kind of media among children is television due to easy access to it (Kater, Rohwer, & Londre, 2002). Moreover, television does not require additional knowledge or skills like reading necessary for magazine advertising. In its turn, television content is highly varied; there are different shows, films, programs, video games, and many more. The main impact is considered to be produced by TV shows promoting beauty as a symbol of success and establishing particular beauty standards. Fashion shows make their contribution to children, especially girls obsessions with a particular body proportions. Video games provoke a sense of self-identification with children encouraging their imitation behaviors. Thus, it is considerable to discuss these three media types in detail.
It is impossible to declare that media content should be concerned only in the context of negative influence on children and adults behavior. There is a wide range of TV shows and programs dedicated to the clarification of females roles in the contemporary society. Thus, in contrast to earlier trends, modern media illustrate women and girls as self-confident, intelligent, and assertive human beings (Banet-Weiser, 2004). One of the most popular commercial networks Nickelodeon provides a vast amount of television, internet, and video production emphasize girls powerful position in civil and consumer worlds. However, this positive accomplishment of the modern society in the context of female issues is degraded due to its close connection with beauty promotion. Preadolescent and an adolescent girl audience are taught that successful and powerful women should also be slim and attractive (Banet-Weiser, 2004).
Music shows and programs about music celebrities also occupy a considerable sector at broadcasting time. According to Monnot (2010), the role of female pop singers is crucial in the process of girls development in the age span from nine to 11 years. Female singers are associated with the standards of the contemporary femininity. In contrast to the radio providing sound perception of music, television is filled with physical visions of modern singers. As a result, adolescent girls make much effort to move and look like their idols through wearing similar clothes that are inappropriate for their age. Besides, they start dieting to achieve the same body proportions as female singers who are mostly thin, tanned, long-legs, and long-haired. Thus, video media resources produce a significant impact on girls social life and the development of their sexual identity (Monnot, 2010). Such self-perception as objects of physical attractiveness and desire provoke sexual stereotypes and wrong life values (Clark, & Tiggemann, 2006).
The great role on forming childrens perception of society and its values is done by childrens TV shows, films, and animated movies. For instance, Disney production promotes the concept of thin beauty (Northup & Liebler, 2010). Their findings revealed that most of the media content is focused on emphasizing physical beauty as a symbol of success. Preschool children spend approximately 3.5 hours in front of their TVs per day. During this time, they are introduced with a vast amount of TV shows, films, and programs where thinness and physical attractiveness are promoted as main female qualities. In advertising pauses, children get another portion of information speculating on physical beauty and sexuality. It is necessary to admit that television content is also filled with information degrading such behavioral traits as drunken driving, smoking, and poor nutritional habits. However, the main emphasis is paid to physical appearance as a formula for success, recognition, and health (Schutz, Paxton, & Wertheim, 2002)
It is obvious that media influence girls more. Nerveless, it is impossible to eliminate its impact on boys body image. Ryan and Morrison (2009) referred to a number of publications revealing recent increased interest to mens body due to the expansion of media resources. Contemporary television and advertising promote of masculine male beauty, which is a traditional approach to mens physical appearance. The ideal man should have broad shoulders, narrow waist, and muscular arms, legs, stomach, and chest. Men of all ages, nationalities, and sexual orientations desire this ideal masculine physique (Ryan & Morrison, 2009). Though mens muscular beauty is associated with thinness, some extra fat is not demonstrated as the major obstacle. Thus, media production introducing a standard of male physical attractiveness emphasizes muscles development as a symbol of strength and health. No much attention is paid to the issue of slenderness thus, men and boys are less vulnerable to the obsession with body image that women and girls (Ryan & Morrison, 2009).
The major illustration of the standards of body beauty promoted by the modern media is fashion models. Their perfect body proportions are seen on television, magazines, advertising, etc. Thin and long-legged models represent the world of fashion and beauty that is so intriguing and desired for girls and women. In modern media, thin females are used to glamorize different beauty products while average-sized women are employed to promote household product. The research of Prabu, Boyne, and German (2009) discovered that weight difference does not provoke any purchase drop among the consumers. However, such weight-based distinction of female roles creates proper perception of body image and the role of physical attractiveness in womens life. Regular observations of slim models arouse dissatisfaction with body proportions possessed by girls and women of average/normal size due to their inability to achieve impossible beauty standards broadcast in media (Fauquet, 2010).
In addition to the beauty standards represented on television and advertising, video games produce a significant impact of childrens perception of body image. Characters in video games reflect trends existing in society; thus, they contain many violent scenes popular in other media resources. Male characters are mostly illustrated as strong and muscular warriors; female characters are also frequently involved in fight scenes. At the same time, they wear immodest clothes on their fashion model like bodies. The researches show that children playing video games identify themselves with game characters through temporal adoption of their properties (Klimmt, Hefner, & Vorderer, 2009). Video games are a kind of entertainment exercised by children in a regular manner. The performance of game characters is based on individual social-psychological models of self-concept and self-perception (Klimmt, Hefner, & Vorderer, 2009). Therefore, contingent acting out of game characters behavioral traits mostly aggression and obsession with physical attractiveness aroused untimely or exaggerated development of sexual identity and negative manifestations of conduct. In the modern world filled with technology advancements like computers, game devices, and varied software, it is essential to consider the impact produced by video games on childrens behaviors and perception of body image.
Media Message
The stated above information is sound evidence that the main message of the contemporary media is the issue of body image. Most of the media content illustrates females in different sexual roles whose peculiar features are thin bodies, long legs, big breast, etc. Northup and Liebler (2010) identified six major beauty ideals proposed and promoted by the contemporary media classic, trendy, athletic, brainy, next-door girl, and alternative. Classic beauty is characterized by traditional femininity such as long hair, fashionable clothes with little amount of accessories, and a general soft image. Trendy female character is a person obsessed with her appearance, boys perception and attention, and clothes. Athletic kind of beauty is peculiar to girls naturally pretty who are more interested in sports than boys are or fashion (Northup & Liebler, 2010).
A brainy girl possessed a wide range of intellectual abilities; she is the one turned to for an academic answer or advice. She is often illustrated in glasses and modest clothes, and she is never an object of romance. The next-door girl character is a mixture of traditional femininity and athletics. Though she is quite pretty and concerned with fashion trends, she seems to be unaware of her beauty while drawing males attention (Northup & Liebler, 2010). A girl in black clothes usually large represents alternative or Goth character. It is hard to identify her natural beauty since her face is frequently covered with much distracting make-up accomplished by aggressive or detached conduct (Northup & Liebler, 2010). The stated above beauty categories reveal that contemporary media illustrates different kinds of female characters beautiful kittens, smart career-builders, or those protesting against society. However, beautiful characters are illustrated as objects of love, attraction, or sexual desire while smart or alternative girls are deprived of it. Since every woman starting from her early ages wants to be liked, such a depiction of women may provoke the establishment of wrong life values. Boys who also watch a lot of television are taught that physically attractive girls are more nice and friendly than their brainy peers (Northup & Liebler, 2010).
Results of Media Influence
As it has been already stated, media content produces a significant influence on childrens behaviors and perception of the concept of body image. As a result, children, especially girls, start imitating what they have seen on television, advertising, video games, and magazines. Dohnt and Tiggermann (2006) conducted a research of girls audience aged from five to eight years to identify media influence on them. They discovered that most of the preadolescent girls are dissatisfied with their body proportions due to slim and beautiful women seen in media. As a result, their levels of self-esteem turned to be lower than of those not concerned with body image. In addition, majority of the girls surveyed revealed the desire to look like women illustrated on TV and fashion magazines. There was little interest in imitating friends appearance since their peers also experience body dissatisfaction (Dohnt & Tiggermann, 2006).
In their attempt to imitate beauty ideals promoted by media, children exercise dieting and disordered eating. According to a number of studies, eating disorders are mostly diagnosed
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