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Abstract

At the present, demand for higher education has continued to rise especially in the case of adult learners who perceive added credentials in education as a stepping stone towards a better position and a more fulfilling career. Suffice it to say there are many means of continued education that these learners can choose from such as traditional classroom environments, online learning modules or even blended learning options. However, it should be noted that despite the ubiquitous means of obtaining an advanced degree in a particular field of study, it cannot be stated that face to face learning environments or methods of online instruction are equal and interchangeable. One of the primary reason virtual education through online learning portals was created was to address the issue of the need for autonomy and freedom by students who had to deal with the pressures of everyday living such as work, family and other personal factors.

However, online lessons lack the dynamism found in face to face learning environment and, at times, adult learners find the lack of direct human interaction to be discouraging resulting in a greater likelihood to drop out of the online course due to a lack of interest. On the other end of the spectrum traditional classroom environments also happen to provide the needed dynamism and face to face interaction that is desired by adult learners, however, in this instance the fixed schedules and amount of coursework that needs to be internalized within a particular timeframe also causes considerable problems for adult learners due to the subsequent interference with their work/life balance. It is due to this that this paper postulates that a new model of education needs to be developed that utilizes the positive aspects of both traditional and online learning environments in order to create a better and more effective method of teaching adult learners. It is anticipated that through such a model educational institutions will be able to address the various problems that have been indicated so far resulting in better programs and learners that are more motivated to learn and complete their respective advanced degrees.

Affordances and Constraints in Adult Education: Does One Size Fit All?

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this research is to determine the extent to which adult learners are affected by the constraints of time and motivation to complete classes in the real world classroom and in the virtual learning environment. It will attempt to clarify how best to address these concerns and how instructors can best utilize the students strengths while addressing their difficulties with these two differing issues.

Todays adult learners are faced with several choices when planning continuing education. Classes are offered in two major modalities, either face-to-face, traditional classes, or online instruction, or e-learning. They face challenges in both of these situations, but what difficulties they face, and how they go about addressing them are different for the two different modalities of instruction. This research is going to explore the specific issues of motivation and time constraints, and how the adult learner copes with these within each modality.

Adult learners can bring a variety of strengths to the classroom. They are often more experienced, both in their life-world and in the work place. They are familiar with responsibilities and obligations and therefore may be better equipped to meet deadlines and fulfill class commitments. They also have a greater sense of what to expect at workplace and what future employers may look for in an employee. However, many of them may have been out of the classroom for a while. Techniques and teaching methods may have changed since they were in school, or they may not have been good students before and so dropped out of college. They also may be less inclined to get involved with the entire college experience as a more traditionally aged student due to family and work commitments. By finding what works for this growing student population, both students, and teachers can benefit. The students will experience greater academic success if their needs are met, and the college in turn can benefit through better retention and an increase in graduation rates. Instructors, in turn, will be able to create more successful situations for their students.

Hypothesis

By identifying the constraints of adapting to a new environment, strategies can be developed to maximize the success of the adult learner. These should seek to accommodate the differing needs of adult learners in both face-to-face and e-learning. Research on these issues should reveal some common strong points and needs that many adult learners share.

Questions

Are there any necessary differences between online and f2f learning?
If so, how do these affect the learner?
Do adult learners have different needs?
Do those different needs have any relationship with the differences found between online and f2f modes of learning?
Would the learning experience be improved if identified needs are matched with affordances of the mode?
How would these improvements in learning be measured?

Prelude

The face of education is changing. Students in the twenty-first century are in a position not only as learners, but as consumers. Institutions vie for attendance numbers, graduation rates, and job placements each of which translates into dollars both from government funding sources and from the students themselves. Adult learners in both traditional classrooms and in online classes tend to have the perception of themselves more as customers than traditional students (Rankin, 2002, 145) i.e. the product they are buying is their education. This view comes with maturity and the fact that they have selected to attend classes and the mode in which they will attend. Colleges are increasingly in a position to sell a product learning and likewise, students are increasingly in the position of consumer. How that is changing the learning environment can be either a boon or a bust for the adult learner.

Newer, cutting edge technology is opening up opportunities for both traditional classroom instruction and a variety of online and computer based learning opportunities, but all this choice is still not a guarantee of success for the adult learner. When it comes to the best type of situation, one size truly does not fit all; what brings success and empowerment to one may be the downfall of another. Adult learners encounter a variety of challenges and issues in the classroom, regardless in which modality that class is offered. The adult learner is faced with several issues that place constraints on their learning; personal issues, social situations, and even the learning environments themselves. Some of the largest personal factors faced by these students are the amount of expendable time available and their personal motivation level.

Time constraints are the reasons adults cite most for not being able to undertake learning (Beyond Rhetoric, 2003, 5). The problems are compounded by the number of other commitments that are being faced. Reflecting work and family commitments, it is difficult to find time to engage in learning courses, especially for those unconvinced of the benefits of learning (Beyond Rhetoric, 2003,5). Even were that not the case, constraints on the availability of tutors, and even the number of working hours in a day, will, at some point, act as a barrier to further learning (Dron, 2007, p. 52).This is a consideration regardless of whether the student is taking classes in a traditional face-to-face classroom, or in an e-learning environment, such as an online class or other distance learning or blended learning mode.

Ironically, the very aspects of adult learners lives that make online education so attractive can make the retention of those learners so precarious in practice. The additional flexibility and assumed freedom allowed through online learning require increased responsibility on the part of the adult learner to meet deadlines and stay on top of assignments without face-to-face interaction (Rankin, 2002, 143). To help the learner be successful, these online classrooms should be well designed; the site should present an organized vision, showing a natural progression of coursework and activities from beginning to end. If students know what to expect right from the start, they can organize their own time better to complete necessary tasks. Therefore, online should not include surprise exercises and last-minute assignments (Rankin, 2002, 144).

More often than not, the working adult students will not only have academic demands, but they will also be under pressure to meet work deadlines and family obligations. When forced to make a choice between an important project just assigned by the boss and a long planned research paper for an instructor, the online learner will most likely have little choice but to fulfill work obligations first. (Rankin, 2002, 143). In a study conducted by Kim (2005), students who were not successful in completing online courses were surveyed. Despite the beliefs of instructors, some of the students self-reported, they did not complete the self-directed e-l earning course although they intended to in the beginning. Lack of motivational quality in the e-learning course was a key factor for some learners who decided not to complete the course, followed by lack of time. (Kim, 2005, 127). In addition, the learners level of satisfaction with learning has a paramount impact on his or her continuing motivation. The learners perceived control also seems to have a positive influence on his or her continuing motivation (Kim, 2006, 14). This seems to be one of the strongest predictors of student success the motivation level. There can be either intrinsic factors, or extrinsic motivational factors. Coupled with a students self-identity, they can either motivate a student to succeed, or be an indicator of failure.

Paradoxically, those adult students whose needs are the greatest are often the very people that arent motivated to go beyond where they currently are. Many low educated or low-skilled individuals believe their skills are good or excellent and thus do not see any need to improve (Beyond Rhetoric, 2003, 5). These individuals, if they do enter a learning scenario, may lack the intrinsic motivation that will help them to persist in attaining their goats. It is also important to make a distinction between persistence and continuing motivation& persistence is inferred when a person keeps on working on a task, whereas continuing motivation refers to a person returning to a task despite an interruption of the task. (Kim, 2005, 13), Thus, an unmotivated learner will not continue to come to class even if it is a traditional face-to-face setting.

It may be even more difficult to keep these under-motivated learners involved in online classes. & to require learning in the absence of any motivation has to be self-defeating, because it ruins the experience of learning (Jen-Louis, 1988). Kim states, continuing motivation and intrinsic motivation are the most significant constructs for learners of computer-assisted instruction (2005, 11). In other words, these two factors are good predictors of success. Learners with high self-confidence tend to demonstrate high persistence in a task regardless of their goal orientation. However, those with low self-confidence tend to avoid challenges and will likely quit rather than persist in the task (Kim, 2005, 14). Because so much of the students learning is sell-directed in online classes, these are most difficult for the less motivated learner or the one whose motivation diminishes over time.

Dron found when formulating a study that it became more obvious that not all learners need or desire the same degree of help from teachers, it became apparent that the research question was how to get the right balance between giving independent learners [support].., while, at the same time, not asserting such control that we impede the learner or reduce learners capacity to self-management, or indeed de-motivate them (Dron, 2007,6). The adult learner walks a fine line between autonomy and the need for direction. To provide one or the other in insufficient quantity can be discouraging and act as a barrier rather than a bridge to student success. Learners with mastery goals tend to focus on achieving mastery; they are willing to accomplish something challenging and to gain understanding or insight from the tasks&. Therefore, the mastery-goal orientation is more likely to foster intrinsic motivation of the learner (Kim, 2005, 12). The role of the intuition and ultimately the instructor is therefore becoming two-fold; they must not only instruct, or teach the students, but also find the ways of successfully motivating them. Lack of motivation has been a concern in theory and practice for facilitating successful online learning environments, yet there has been a lack of knowledge on how to motivate online learners, especially in self-directed e-learning settings, which is a dominant instructional format for adult learners (Kim, 2005, 124).

E- learning contains many positive elements for the motivated adult leaner: convenience and flexibility offered by the anytime, anywhere accessibility (Richardson-Swan, 2003). But these could also translate to negatives because of diminishing motivation. Several considerations should be deliberated when designing online courses for the adult learner. Some of the positive components that would help student success are course interactivity, integration of real-world situations, and student control over sequencing and the pace of the lessons. Learners found the learning climate positive because they could work in the comfort of their home, they felt no pressure of deadlines or grades, and for some, prior learning experiences helped allay their anxiety about online learning (Kim, 2005, 126).

Sometimes the same factor can add or detract depending on the individual learner. An absence of external motivators is one of these in the case of e-learning situations: the absence of social interaction and of external motivators might have more significant influence on students in colleges or universities than on working professionals in terms of motivation to persist in self-directed e-learning (Kim, 2005, 129). The lack of physical presence in the e- learning course can be disquieting to some learners, while others are glad of the distance and autonomy this offers. Findings& suggest that the learners motivational level is likely to increase when the e-learning course is designed in a way that is relevant to the learner, has multimedia components and hands-on activities, simulates real -world situations, provides feedback on the learners performance, and provides easy navigation on its course Web site (Kirn, 2005, 133).

Finally, there should be considerations given to how much information the learners are given prior to entering into the classroom. Older students are often only familiar with traditional f2f classrooms. It is easy to recognize how much time will be required to be spent, at least in the classroom, when the student has the class scheduled at a specific time of day on specified days of the week. It becomes more difficult to manage study time when the class is online and the student is required to plan their time for the class and balance it against the aforementioned demands of family and work. Students need honesty about the time and technology that will be required for online courses. Likewise, dont expect students to just pick up the skills along the way, if those skills should actually be a prerequisite for the class (Rankin, 2002, 145). Wojecki believes that this approach to the construction of the training program was inviting learners to be more active agents within the learning process, rather than the passive subjects the participants were originally expecting to be (Wojecki, 2007).

Adult learners encounter a variety of challenges and issues in the classroom. When it comes to the best type of situation, one size truly does not fit all; what brings success and empowerment to one may be the downfall of another. In an educational transaction, there may be constraints imposed by a vast range of things, such as the subject matter, available space and/or time, degree of initial knowledge, personal preference, the weather or even the laws of grammar (Dron, 2007, p. 45). The adult learner is faced with many constraints on their learning; personal issues, social situations, and even the learning environments themselves. These constraints can either restrict the learning, or they can provide direction to the learner. Constraints are not all equal. They may be broadly split into those that are primary, (without which the learning experience would be pointless), and those that are secondary, (without which the learning experience would be changed, but not necessarily obliterated) (Dron, 2007, p. 49).The focus of this research will be to examine previous research to determine the affordances and constraints of adult education in existing physical, face-to-face learning environments and e-learning or virtual classrooms.

One of the greatest positive constraints the adult learner brings to either a classroom situation or an e-learning environment is a focus of purpose. The adult learner often has a clear goal and purpose on entering (or re-entering) school; job requirements, changes in employment situations, or simply the desire for a better position bring many adults back into the modern classroom. As Dron states, Where learners perceive a need that is fulfilled by their learning beyond the current application, their approach to learning is different, more focused and intense (2007, p. 50). Simply stated, the learner who feels that the learning fulfills a need or purpose will approach that learning with more energy and focus than one who sees no need for it.

To an adult learner, one of the greatest negative factors that constrain learning is time. When an adult leaves the work force to become a student, they cannot leave behind family, house, and personal obligations. There arent enough hours in a day to meet work deadlines, maintain a household (chores, repairs, etc.) and attend to childrens needs. However, mothers must relinquish some of their authority over child- rearing for this [learning] to occur, and mothers are more likely to do this when structural constraints, such as the requirements of shift work, force them to do this.

However, when the student feels empowered in a given situation, it makes a difference in their attitude whether or not they actually take the opportunity to make the change or not. The student can feel more empowered when they have the ability to make choices concerning how and when they will learn. Even if they do not actually exercise these options, just having them can make a difference in the students motivation to finish a course. The control they knew that they were able to exert [over a situation] was enough to make a difference (Dron, 2007, p. 49) in how they approached the situation.

Adult students have the choice to attend face-to-face classes during the day or in the evening, but having a family can constrain the student. Assuming the children are of school age, day classes are easier, but illness, days off from school and bad weather can all restrict the time the learner can spend in the classroom. If the children are not school age, then daycare becomes a constraint. Finding reliable daycare, and paying for it, can be difficult. Granted this is partly more of a financial constraint than a time, but it comes down to the same thing. If the student cannot either find or pay for daycare, he/she will not be in class.

Contrary to popular belief, the major motivation for enrolment in distance education is not physical access per se, but the temporal freedom that allows students to move through a course of studies at a time and pace of their choice. Participation in a community of learners almost inevitably places constraints upon this independence even when the pressure of synchronous connection is eliminated by use of asynchronous communications tools. The constraints that are imposed by a lack of reliable transportation can be alleviated by e-classes, but the constraints of time and abilities can still be present. It would be easy to claim that we were merely constrained by space. If learning could be made easier by simply changing the time and place that classes are offered, or by giving more options to the learner, everyone would be guaranteed success. However, engagement with learning requires motivation and a desire to learn (Dron, 2007, p. 53). Additionally, if the student doesnt have experience with computers and other technologies, they are constrained by their lack of knowledge no matter how motivated they are to learn. Educational social software (ESS) may also be used to expand, rather than constrain the freedoms of their users.

Some constraints to e-learning can also be a lack of the proper technology as well as the knowledge of how to use it. Unlike the real environment, the virtual space is not limited to a particular group at a particular place and time (Dron, 2007, p. 55), but it can be limited by income and life circumstances. When the adult returns to school, many luxury items may have to be trimmed from the budget; internet access is often one of the first cuts to be made. Income can further constrain the student since computers are not cheap and many families have never even owned one, or if they do, it may be outdated and prone to break down.

An Overview of the Research Methodology

This research hopes to uncover distinct patterns of adult learners affordances and constraints and attempts to answer how these can be used to increase the success of the learners. It will also chart differences between online classes and face-to-face instruction in their ability to provide a rich and rewarding learning experience for adult learners. In examining these differences, the factors of time and motivational constraints will be considered. It will seek to provide a model that can address the current gaps between available resources and student needs. The intended synthesis of recent research will focus on interpretations, charts, and models of current learner constraints. The research will be conducted in the following ways:

by analyzing previous studies on the topic of adult learners to track themes and patterns in learning.
by consulting literature on adult learning to correlate and tabulate relevant teaching methodologies.
by synthesizing personal experience and the findings from previous researches
by comparing personal experience with the literary experience and by juxtaposing these two experiences give the full weight of the new consolidated model for teaching adults

Utilizing a Qualitative Research Methodology

What is Qualitative Research?

Merriam (2009) in her book Qualitative Research: A Guide to Design and Implementation explains that qualitative research is a type of exploratory research in that it tries to examine and explain particular aspects of a scenario through an in-depth method of examination (Merriam 2009, 3-21). While it is applicable to numerous disciplines, it is normally applied to instances which attempt to explain human behaviour and the varying factors that influence and govern such behaviours into forming what they are at the present (Merriam 2009, 3-21). Thus, it can be stated that qualitative research focuses more on exploring various aspects of an issue, developing an understanding of phenomena within an appropriate context and answering questions inherent to the issue being examined. This makes it an ideal research method to be utilized in this study since it would enable the researcher to examine the differing needs of adult learners in both face-to-face and e-learning. The following are the possible qualitative research methods that will be utilized in this study:

Narrative Analysis

Based on an examination of the types of qualitative studies by Merriam (2009), one possible approach that could be pursued is the use of a narrative analysis in presenting information to readers. Merriam (2009) states that a narrative analysis is actually one of the oldest methods of analysis that makes use of experiences and methods of communication with others in order to better understand the various facets of particular situations and external events (Merriam 2009, 32-50). As explained by Merriam (2009), this method of qualitative analysis utilizes a variety of methods of examination, not limited to biological, psychological or linguistic approaches and, as such, can utilize several different perspectives in order to explain a particular issue (Merriam 2009, pp. 33-50). Such an approach can be seen in the case of the article Beyond Content: How Teachers Manage Classrooms to Facilitate Intellectual Engagement for Disengaged Students wherein Schussler (2009) interspaces her views with that of the students utilized in the study in order to identify specific problems in intellectual engagement and what could possibly be done to resolve them (Schussler 2009, pp. 114-121).

Document Analysis

Despite the effective methodology shown by the Schussler (2005) study, another possible method of qualitative research would be to rely almost entirely on document analysis. As explained by Merriam (2009), a research study that relies almost entirely on academic literature without other methods of external data collection runs the risk of being confined primarily to the results exhibited by the research studies utilized (Merriam 2009, pp 135-165). This can result in a study that is severely constrained in terms of the number of factors that it is capable of encompassing especially in situations where the research subject that is being examined is focused on a narrowly specific topic (Merriam 2009, pp 135-165). On the other hand, relying purely on academic literature in order to investigate a particular study does have its advantages since it reduces the amount of time need during the initial stages of preliminary research and enables the research to more effectively justify the results presented by indicating that they had already been verified by previous researchers (Merriam 2009, pp 135-165).

Comparison between Narrative Analysis and Document Analysis

Merriam (2009) explains that narrative research combines direct quotes, views and perspectives from the research subject utilizing biological, psychological or linguistic approaches (though it can of course encompass even more approaches) and blends them with various types of academic sources in order to create a written output that is best described as an academic narrative since it seems to be an elaboration on the experiences of those writing and those being examined (Merriam 2009, pp 32-100). It is somewhat of an informal method of presentation; however, it is an ideal method if the purpose of the research is to showcase the views and experiences of both the author and the research subjects through the lens of a variety of academic methods of examination (Merriam 2009, pp 32-100).

Considering this studys focus on differing learning methods (face-to-face and online studies) and adult learners, this in effect makes a narrative analysis an ideal method of examination since it will utilize the perspective of adult students to answer the research questions of the study. In comparison, when looking at chapter 7 of her book, Merriam (2009) elaborates on document based research by stating that document based methods of analysis primarily concerns itself with an examination of various academic texts in order to draw conclusions on a particular topic (Merriam 2009, pp 139-165). While each method of analysis does have its own level of strengths such as in the case of a narrative analysis that enables a researcher to utilize learning and adaptation approaches in order to examine various types of data, it should be noted that a document analysis is far easier to do and has a higher degree of academic veracity as compared to narrative based research which can often result in mistaken conclusions (Merriam 2009, pp 32-165).

Use of Narrative and Document Analysis

After examining the pros and cons of using either narrative or document analysis in this study, it was decided that using both approaches would be the best way of addressing all the issues of the study. Document analysis will be able to help combine the information from various academic sources into a cohesive whole, while narrative analysis will address the perspectives of the adult learners.

Critical Review

Self Determination Theory and Adult Learning

Based on the work of Deci and Ryan (2008), self-determination theory can be considered a set of intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that influence an individuals ability to accomplish a particular set of tasks. In the case of this study, this encompasses an adult learners capacity to initiate and complete an advanced educational degree within an educational institution of their choice (Deci & Ryan, 2008). Deci and Ryan (2008) explain that each individual has a different set of motivating factors that influence their behaviors or activities (Deci and Ryan, 2008). As such, when it comes to applying this in the case of advanced education one must look at intrinsic and extrinsic motivational factors that impact an individuals decision making and motivational processes. Extrinsic methods of motivation can be described as an external motivating factor that provides satisfaction over the completion of a task in the form of a reward or pleasure at its completion.

For adult learners, this comes in the form of higher incomes from having advanced degrees, the feeling of accomplishment from completing a course, the level of distinction accorded to them due to the possession of masters/doctoral degree as well as a plethora of other factors that can be categorized as a reward. Intrinsic methods of motivation on the other hand are derived from an individuals pleasure/sense of satisfaction at working at a particular task or, in this case, learning a new course. Adult learners oriented towards intrinsic motivation are categorically different than their extrinsic counterparts since their desire to learn originates not from factors related to external rewards, rather, it is more along the lines of the pleasure, happiness and joy they derive from learning. This is an important distinction to take into consideration since Deci and Ryan (2008) explains that individual differences in causal orientation impact the manner in which people view the means that they will accomplish a particular task Deci & Ryan, 2008).

In the case of traditional, computer-mediated and blended learning methods of education, self determination theory suggests that students, adult or otherwise, would view each method of learning in a different way given the varied motivational factors that drive them. In the case of traditional classroom learning environments, the dynamic setting, the constant exchange of ideas and the means by which a student can interact with and get guidance from a teacher would appeal more to adult learners with distinctly intrinsic levels of motivation. The basis behind this assumption originates from studies such as those by Halvorson et al. (2011) which indicate that traditional classroom environments are still considered the most fulfilling method of learning due to the level of interaction found in th

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